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196 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
How are covalent bonds formed?
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atoms share electrons
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Covalent bonds are the _________ type of chemical bond.
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strongest
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In nonpolar covalent bonds, electrons are shared [equally/unequally].
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equally
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In polar covalent bonds, electrons are shared [equally/unequally].
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unequally
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Atoms of what 3 elements strongly attract electrons and become negatively charged compared to the other atoms sharing electrons with them?
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1. oxygen
2. nitrogen 3. phosphorus |
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How are ionic bonds formed?
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transfer of electrons
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Ionic compound
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atoms held together by weak ionic bonds
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Ionic bonds break easily when dissolved in ________ and yield charged atoms called ______.
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water; ions
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hydrogen bond
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weak attraction between hydrogen and an electronegative atom
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Acids donate _____ to a solution.
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hydrogen ions
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Bases lower the concentration of ______ ____ in a solution.
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hydrogen ions
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The pH scale is a ____________ function of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.
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negative
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In a neutral solution, the concentration of H+ is _____ to the concentration of OH- and the pH is ___.
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equal; 7
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Acids _____ pH and _____ H+ concentration.
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lower; raise
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Bases _____ pH and _____ H+ concentration.
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raise; lower
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Atoms of what 2 elements must organic molecules contain?
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1. carbon
2. oxygen |
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Atoms within organic molecules are held together by ________ bonds.
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covalent
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Other than carbon and oxygen, what other 4 elements may be present as specific functional groups in organic molecules?
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1. nitrogen
2. oxygen 3. phosphorus 4. sulfur |
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What %age of the adult human body is made up of water?
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65-75%
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______ of the water in the body is intracellular and _____ is extracellular.
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2/3, 1/3
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What is the smallest unit of chemical elements?
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atom
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What 2 types of particles make up an atom's nucleus?
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1. protons
2. neutrons |
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Are protons and neutrons within a nucleus equal in weight?
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Yes
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Are protons and electrons equal in weight?
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No
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Which 2 particles are electrically charged?
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1. protons (+)
2. electrons (-) |
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Atomic number
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Number of protons in an atom
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Mass number
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Number of protons and neutrons in an atom
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Which particle in an atom has no electrical charge?
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Neutron
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Which shell contains the electrons which participate in chemical reactions and form chemical bonds?
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outermost shell
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Valence electrons
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electrons in outermost shell
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Isotope
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forms of an element that contain same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons
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Hydrogen has ___ isotopes.
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3
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Name 2 isotopes of hydrogen.
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1. deuterium
2. tritium |
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Molecules are formed through _______ _______.
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chemical bonding
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Covalent bond
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atoms share valence electrons
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Ionic bond
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atoms gain or lose valence electrons
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A covalent bond is ________ if electrons are equally distributed between the 2 atoms.
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nonpolar
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A covalent bond is _____ if electrons are pulled more to one side than another.
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polar
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What 3 elements have strong tendency to form polar molecules?
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1. oxygen
2. nitrogen 3. phosphorus |
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Atoms that have a positive or negative charge are called _____.
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ions
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Cation
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ion with a positive charge
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Anion
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ion with negative charge
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Ionic compound
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joining of cation with an anion
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What is an example of an ionic compound?
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table salt
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What is an example of a polar molecule?
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water
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Which bond is stronger - ionic or covalent?
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covalent
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Hydrophilic
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attracted to water
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Hydrophobic
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repelled by water
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Hydrogen bond
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hydrogen atom forms covalent bond with atom of oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen becomes slightly positive as electron is pulled toward other atom - weakly attracting a nearby second electronegative atom of oxygen or nitrogen.
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Name 2 properties of water which are due to hydrogen bonds.
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1. surface tension
2. capillary action |
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Capillary action
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ability of water to be pulled through narrow channels
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Neutral pH
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10 ^-7 molar hydrogen ion, where concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal
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Acid
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has higher H+ concentration than water; proton donor
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Base
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has lower H+ concentration than water; proton acceptor
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What's the formula to determine pH?
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pH = log [1/H+] or -log[H+]
where H+ is molar H+ concentration |
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Pure water has a H+ concentration of _____ molar at 25◦C.
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10^-7
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Buffer
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system of molecules and ions that acts to prevent changes in H+ concentration and stabilizes pH of a solution.
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What is the normal range of pH of arterial blood?
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7.40 +/- .05
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How does excessive vomiting effect blood pH?
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causes blood pH to rise
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Organic molecule
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molecule containing carbon and hydrogen atoms
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Acidosis
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blood pH below 7.35
NOTE: blood doesn't have to be acidic to be acidotic! |
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Alkalosis
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blood pH above 7.45
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What's the buffer pair that usually prevents acidosis and alkalosis?
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carbonic acid and bicarbonate
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What's an aromatic molecule?
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a 6-sided ring having alternating double bonds between carbon atoms
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Functional groups are largely responsible for the unique chemical ________ of the molecule.
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properties
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Functional groups are more _______ than the molecular "backbone."
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reactive
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If carbon atoms share one pair of electrons, they have a ______ covalent bond.
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single
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If carbon atoms share two pairs of electrons, they have a _______ covalent bond.
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double
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If carbon atoms share three pairs of electrons, they have a ______ covalent bond.
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triple
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Benzene is an example of a/an ______ compound.
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aromatic
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Organic molecules containing a carbonyl group are called _________.
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ketones
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If carbon atoms share one pair of electrons, they have a ______ covalent bond.
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single
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If carbon atoms share two pairs of electrons, they have a _______ covalent bond.
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double
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If carbon atoms share three pairs of electrons, they have a ______ covalent bond.
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triple
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Benzene is an example of a/an ______ compound.
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aromatic
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Organic molecules containing a carbonyl group are called _________.
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ketones
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Alcohols contain which functional group?
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hydroxyl
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What functional group is found in all organic acids?
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carboxyl
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3 shapes of hydrocarbon molecules:
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1. linear
2. cyclic 3. aromatic ring |
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What is a carboxyl group?
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COOH
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Stereoisomer
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2 molecules having the same atoms and arranged in same sequence, yet differing in spatial orientation of key functional group.
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2 types of stereoisomers:
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1. D-isomer (dextro- or right-handed); or
2. L-isomer (left-handed) |
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6 types of functional groups:
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1. carbonyl
2. hydroxyl 3. sulfhydryl 4. amino 5. carboxyl; and 6. phosphate |
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4 categories of organic molecules based on functional groups:
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1. ketone
2. organic acid 3. aldehyde; and 4. alcohol |
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An enzyme can combine with both stereoisomers of a given molecule. T/F
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False
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Enzymes can combine only with ___- amino acids and ___-sugars.
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L, D
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3 types carbohydrates:
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1. monosaccharides
2. disaccharides; and 3. polysaccharides |
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What physical property is shared by all lipids?
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Lipids are nonpolar, thus insoluble in water.
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2 similarities of carbs and lipids:
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1. consist primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and
2. serve as major energy sources in the body. |
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General formula for a carb molecule:
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molecule has twice as many hydrogens as carbon or oxygen atoms
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Another term for monosaccharide is _______ sugar.
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simple
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What suffix denotes a sugar molecule?
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-ose
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A disaccharide is formed by the ____ bonding of 2 monosaccharides.
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covalent
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3 examples of monosaccharides:
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1. glucose
2. fructose; and 3. galactose |
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3 examples of disaccharides:
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1. sucrose
2. lactose; and 3. maltose |
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4 examples of polysaccharides:
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1. starch
2. glycogen 3. cellulose 4. chitin |
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The major polysaccharides are chains of repeating ________ subunits.
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glucose
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Can humans hydrolyze cellulose? Y/N
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No.
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Chitin forms the ______ of arthropods such as insects and crustaceans.
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exoskeleton
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The net movement of water through a cell is called _______.
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osmosis
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Why do cells store carbs as polysaccharides, rather than many monosaccharides?
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Fewer polysaccharides (lower concentration) draw less water into a cell than many monosaccharides (high concentration) would. Too much water entering the cell can damage/kill cell.
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_______ and ________ can store excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
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Liver; muscles
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Dehydration synthesis
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monosaccharides are bonded together covalently when a hydrogen atom is removed from one and a hydroxyl group (OH) is removed from another, producing water
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Hydrolysis
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digestion reactions, requiring water, which break down disaccharides or polysaccharides.
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Dehydration synthesis is the opposite of _______.
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hydrolysis
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Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis do/do not occur spontaneously.
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do not
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Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis require specific ________.
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enzymes
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Reactions similar to dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis take place to build and break down carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. T/F
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True
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What is primary component of lipids?
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hydrocarbon chains and rings
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2 lipid solvents:
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1. ether; and
2. benzene |
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2 triglycerides:
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1. fat
2. oil |
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What's another term for triglyceride?
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triacylglycerol
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Trigycerides are formed through condensation of 1 molecule of ______ and 3 molecules of _____ _____.
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glycerol; fatty acids
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2 types of fatty acids:
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1. saturated; and
2. unsaturated |
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Saturated fatty acid
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carbon atoms within the hydrocarbon chain can bond with 2 hydrogen atoms
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Unsaturated fatty acid
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carbon atoms within the hydrocarbon chain can bond with 1 hydrogen atom
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Saturated fat
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triglyceride containing mostly saturated fatty acids
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Unsaturated fat
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triglyceride containing mostly unsaturated fatty acids
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The recommended daily fat intake allowance is _____; less than ____ of the daily energy intake should be saturated fat.
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30%; 10%
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Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids are ____ fatty acids because the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond between carbon atoms.
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cis
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How are trans fatty acids formed?
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by partially hydrogenating vegetable oils
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The structure of a cis fatty acid is _____.
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sawtooth
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The structure of a trans fatty acid is ______.
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straight
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Most commercially prepared fried and baked foods contain _______ fats.
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trans
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Saturated fat and trans fatty acids have been shown to increase the risk of ________ by raising _____ (bad) cholesterol and lowering _____ (good) cholesterol.
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coronary heart disease; LDL; HDL
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Triglycerides are ______ fats because fatty acids combined with glycerol can no longer release H+ and function as acids.
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neutral
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What is released into the blood as a result of hydrolysis of triglycerides?
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free fatty acids
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Free fatty acids can be converted by the _____ into derivatives called ketone bodies.
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liver
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An example of a/an _________ _____ is acetone, the solvent in nail polish remover.
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ketone body
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This condition occurs when a rapid breakdown of fat results in elevated levels of ketone bodies in the blood.
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ketosis
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The condition where insufficient ketone bodies are in the blood to lower the blood pH is called ________.
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ketoacidosis
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What is responsible for the "fruity" smell to the breath which occurs in ketosis?
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acetone
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Ketonuria
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elevated levels of ketone bodies in the urine
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The most common type of phospholipid is formed when glycerol is attached to 2 fatty acids and a _______ group.
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phosphate
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Nonpolar ends of phospholipids are _________.
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hydrophobic
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The dual nature of phospholipids allows them to decrease water's surface tension, making them ________.
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surfactants
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The surfactant effect of ____________ prevents the lungs from collapsing due to surface tension forces.
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phospholipids
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Phospholipids are the main component of cell __________.
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membranes
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The basic structure of a steroid: _____ six-carbon ring/s joined to _____ five-carbon ring/s
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3; 1
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Lecithin is also called _________.
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phosphatidylcholine
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Micelle
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structure formed when hydrophilic part of molecules face aqueous environment and hydrophobic parts group together
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________ is the precursor for steroid hormones produced by the gonads and adrenal cortex.
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Cholesterol
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Ovaries produce ________ and _________.
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estradiol; progesterone
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Testes produce _________.
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testosterone
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3 sex steroids
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1. estadiol
2. progesterone 3. testosterone |
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Corticosteroids are produced by the ________ _______.
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adrenal cortex
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2 corticosteroids
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1. hydrocortisone
2. aldosterone |
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Cholesterol is an important component of the cell ________, and serves as the precursor molecule for _____ salts and vitamin ____.
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membrane; bile; D₃
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____________ are a family of regulatory compounds derived from a membrane lipid known as arachidonic acid.
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Prostaglandins
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Proteins are large molecules composed of _____ _____ subunits.
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amino acid
|
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How many types of amino acids can be used in constructing a given protein?
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20
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_______ _____ contain genetic information needed for protein synthesis.
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Nucleic acids
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Genetic information determines the sequence of _____ _____; thus determining the _______ of the protein.
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amino acids; structure
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2 types of nucleic acids
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1. DNA
2. RNA |
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5 examples of functions regulated by prostaglandins.
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1. vasoconstriction/vasodilation
2. ovulation 3. uterine contractions 4. inflammation reactions 5. blood clotting |
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Amino acids have a ____ group at one end and a ______ group at the other.
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amino; carboxyl
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Differences between amino acids are due to differences in their _______ groups.
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functional
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Amino acids are joined together by _________ __________.
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dehydration synthesis
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The bond between amino acids is a _________ bond, and the compound formed is called a ________.
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peptide; peptide
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A dipeptide is ___ amino acids bound together.
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two
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Polypeptide
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chain of amino acids
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A polypeptide chain longer than 100 amino acids is called a ________.
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protein
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Myosin contains _____ amino acids.
|
4500
|
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What is protein denaturation?
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change in protein structure due to high temperature or change in pH
|
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Disulfide bond
|
strong covalent bonds between sulfur atoms which stabilizes tertiary structure of protein
|
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Protein primary structure
|
sequence of amino acids
|
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Protein secondary structure
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shape of polypeptide chain caused by weak hydrogen bonds
|
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2 examples of secondary structure
|
1. alpha helix
2. beta pleated sheet |
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Protein tertiary structure
|
bent and folded polypeptide chain caused by chemical interactions between functional groups of amino acids
|
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van der Waals forces
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weak forces between electrically neutral molecules that come very close together.
|
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Protein quarternary structure
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covalently bonded polypeptide chains
|
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Glycoproteins are proteins conjugated with _______.
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carbs
|
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Lipoproteins are _______ conjugated with lipids.
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proteins
|
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Hemoglobin is an example of protein conjugated with a ______ molecule.
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pigment
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2 examples of structural proteins
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1. collagen
2. keratin |
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Enzymes and antibodies are ______.
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proteins
|
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Proteins in cell membranes may serve as _________ for specific hormones and as __________ for transport of specific molecules across the membrane.
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receptors; carriers
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5 categories of protein function:
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1. structure
2. antibody 3. enzyme 4. receptor 5. carrier |
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Subunits of nucleic acids are ____________.
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nucleotides
|
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Process by which nucleotides are bonded together to form long polynucleotide chains.
|
dehydration synthesis
|
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3 subunits of a nucleotide:
|
1. a pentose sugar
2. phosphate group 3. nitrogenous base |
|
2 kinds of nitrogenous bases contained in nucleotides:
|
1. pyrimidines
2. purines |
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Pyrimidines have a single ring of _______ and ________, whereas purines have ______ such rings.
|
carbon, nitrogen, 2
|
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Pentose in DNA nucleotides is _________.
|
deoxyribose
|
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Pentose in RNA nucleotides is _______.
|
ribose
|
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4 possible bases of DNA nucleotides:
|
1. guanine
2. adenine 3. cytosine 4. thymine |
|
Guanine and adenine are ________.
|
purines
|
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Cytosine and thymine are __________.
|
pyrimidines
|
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DNA structure is a _____ _____.
|
double helix
|
|
Law of complementary base pairing
|
adenine only bonds with thymine (through 2 hydrogen bonds) and guanine only bonds with cytosine (through 3 hydrogen bonds)
|
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A gene has a length of several ______ nucleotides.
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thousand
|
|
Human genome
|
all of the genes in a cell
|
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The total human genome consists of over __________ base pairs
|
3 billion
|
|
2 differences between DNA and RNA
|
1. DNA has deoxyribose; RNA has ribose
2. DNA has thymine; RNA has uracil |
|
RNA structure
|
single strand of nucleotides
|
|
3 types RNA in cytoplasm
|
1. mRNA
2. tRNA 3. rRNA |