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288 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define the 3 types of Joints in the Muscular Skeletal system. |
Fibrous, Cartilaginous and Synovial |
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Name the type of tissue found in the fibrous joint. |
Dense fibrous connective tissue. |
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Name three places where you would find a fibrous joint? |
Cranial sutures, teeth to jaw bone joint. Distal tibiofibula joint. |
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What is Cartilaginous joints made out of?
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Fibrocartilage (hyaline). |
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What is the function of cartilaginous joints? |
To join bones together that require very limited movement. The cartilaginous joints are special joint with unique functions. |
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Where do you find cartilaginous joints? |
intervertebral disc (nucleus pulposus inner core or vertebrae), pubic symphysis joints. |
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What are synovial joints? |
Synovial joints are joints that facilitate free movement and control of movement. There are made up of a complex association of tissues and structures. |
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What determines the function of a synovial joint? |
The bone end can determine the range of motion at a joint. |
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What is bony congruence? |
The amount of bone to bone connection found in bone joints. The less bony congruence the move muscles, tendons, ligaments are needed to stabilize the joint. |
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What is a condyle? |
The round ends at the end of a bone. |
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What kind of tissue are the articular cartilage in synovial joints made up of? |
Hyaline. |
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What is articular cartilage? |
Cartilage the covers the ends of the bone where the bone articulates and move over each other. |
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What is the function of articular cartilage? |
To provide a smooth friction-less surface for bone movement. |
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What are ligaments made up of? |
Dense fibrous connective tissue (DFCT) |
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What is the function of a capsular ligament? |
Holds bones together. |
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What function does tight and thick capsular ligament portions have against loose capsular ligament. |
The capsular ligament is tight on the sides where more support is required and loose on side where movement is allowed. |
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What is a synovial membrane? |
The synovial membrane lines the inner surface of the ligament capsule. |
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What is synovial fluid? |
Synovial fluid is secreted for the synovial membrane to lubricate the joint. |
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The knee has ligaments restricting movement, what are these called? |
Collateral ligaments. |
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How do the collateral ligaments work? |
The medial collateral ligament prevents abduction. The lateral collateral ligament prevents adduction. |
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What is an intracapsular ligament? |
An intracapsular ligament is a ligament that restricts movement between bones. |
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What is an example of a intracapsular ligament? |
The cruciate ligaments (crossed ligaments).
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What is the function of the cruciate ligaments? |
The cruciate ligaments arise from tibia and insert into the femur. Anterior cruciate restricts posterior displacement of femur. Posterior cruciate restricts anterior displacement of femur. |
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What is the fibrocartilaginous menisci? |
The fibrocartilaginous menisci serves as cartilage to disperse the load of the body and reduce friction during movement. It is made of fibrocartilaginous tissue. |
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What is the structure of synovial joints? |
(Bone Ends), articular cartilage(hyaline tissue), capsule, cavity, synovial membrane, ligaments (DFCT) |
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What is a bursa (bursae - plural) |
Bursa are sacs of fluid (viscous fluid) surround be synovial membrane. Then are found in most of the major synovial joints in the body. They are between the tendon and the bone. |
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What is the function of bursae? |
They prevent friction during movement. |
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What is a know issue related to bursae? |
Maids knee, maids used to scrub on there hands and knees all day, this caused inflammation in the bursae. |
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What is the structure of a synovial joint designed for? |
Movement |
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What is the function of the synovial capsule? |
To hold the bone together. |
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What is the function of the synovial cavity? |
To allow movment. |
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What is the function of the synovial membrane? |
To supply nutrients as a synovial joint is non vascular. |
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What is the purpose of the synovial ligaments? |
Maintain the integrity of the joint. |
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What is the joint design principal? |
The joint design principal is that you cannot have all the stability and all the movement. The move stability the less movement, the more movement the less stability. |
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How many planes can a multi axis joint move through? |
3 - sagittal, coronal (frontal) and transverse. |
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What is ROM? |
Range of Movement |
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How is ROM determined? |
Bone end shape, ligament location and length, body surface contact. |
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What is an example of a bone end and its function? |
The sphere on the superior end of the femur. It is round and provides multiaxis movement. |
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Name 7 synovial joint shapes. |
Hinge joint, pivot joint, saddle joint, ellipsoid joint, condylar joint, plane joint, ball and socket joint. |
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What is the function of the hinge joint and what kind of joint is it? |
To allow flexion and extension, the hinge joint is a uniaxial synovial joint. |
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Where is the hinge joints found? |
Ankle, elbow (humerus with ulna), interphalangeal joints. |
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What is a pivot joint and what kind of joint is it? |
A pivot joint is a uniaxial synovial joint that allows rotation (supination and pronation). |
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Where are pivot joints? |
radioulnar joint, C1 - C2 (cervical column) |
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What are saddle joints and what kind of joint is it? |
A saddle joint is a biaxial synovial joint, it allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction(circumduction). OBLIGATORY ROTATION. |
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What is the saddle joint found? |
In the thumb (carpometacarpal joint), this is the only saddle joint. It allows for OPPOSITION. |
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What is the ellipsoid joint and what kind of joint is it?
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Biaxial synovial joint, allows flexion extension, abduction, adduction (circumduction), NO ROTATION. |
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Where is the ellipsoid joint found? |
Wrist joint = radiocarpal (radius, carpal bones) joint. |
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What is a condylar joint and what type of joint is it? |
The condylar joint is a biaxial synovial joint. It allows for flexion extension and rotation(when knee is flexed).
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Where is the condylar joint found? |
knee, temperemandibular joint (tmj) |
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What is a plane joint and what type of joint is it? |
The plane joint is a multiaxial synovial joint that allows for sliding and gliding. It consists of two flat surfaces coming together. |
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Where are the plane joints? |
In the metacarpal and metatarsal joints. |
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What is a ball and socket joint and what kind of joints are they? |
Ball and socket joints are multiaxial synovial joints. They allow for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction (circumduction) and rotation. |
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Where are ball and socket joints found? |
In the shoulder and the hip. |
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What are the 7 levels of organisation in the human body? |
Chemical level (atoms, molecules), Organelles level, Cellular level, Tissue level, Organ level, Organ system level, Organism level |
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What are the 4 basic tissue types? |
Epithelial, nervous, muscle, connective. |
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What is the structure of epithelial tissue? |
Layers/sheets of cells, hardly any ECM. |
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What is the structure of connective tissue? |
Sparsely cells, mostly extra cellular matrix containing fibers. |
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What is the structure of muscle tissue? |
long fiber like cells, strong fibers capable of pulling loads |
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What is the structure of nervous tissue? |
many cell types, conducting and supporting |
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What is the function of epithelial tissue? and give an example. |
It covers and protects body surfaces, it also lines cavities. Skin, lining of tracts and glands. |
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What is the function of connective tissue? Give four examples of what is made of connective tissue. |
Supports structures, transports substances. Bones, cartilage, tendons, fat. |
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What is the function of nervous tissue? |
Nervous tissue provides communication between different parts of the body. Nerves, sensory organs. |
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What is the function of muscle tissue? What are the three types of muscle tissue. |
Produces movement and heat. Muscles: Skeletal, smooth and cardiac. |
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Name four functions of skeletal muscle. |
Movement, heat production, posture and communication(talking, sign language). |
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What are the latin and greek prefxies that mean muscle? |
Myo and Sarco |
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What are the three layers of muscle tissue? |
Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium. |
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What is fascia? |
This is the outer skin of the muscle, the white transparent part on meat you get form the super market. |
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What is under the fascia? |
Epimysium the outer layer of tissue of the muscle organ. |
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What does the epimysium cover and what kind of tissue is it made out of? |
The epimysium cover the perimysium(outer wall of the fascicles). Connective tissue. |
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What is the perimysium and what kind of tissue is it made out of? |
The outer wall of the fascicles. Made out of connective tissue. |
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What is the endomysium? |
The endomysium is what muscle cells (muscle fibres) are wrapped in. It runs against he sarcolemma (the membrane of a muscle cell). |
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What is a fascicle? |
Fascicle means bundle or cluster, in this context it means a bundle of muscle fibres (muscle cells). |
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What is a muscle cell? |
A muscle cell, also know as muscle fiber is a unit that makes up the fascicle. It consists or a membrane called the sarcolemma, a sarcoplasmic reticulum and actin and myosin that form a contractile unit. |
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What is sarcolemma? |
It is the muscle cells membrane. |
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What is a sarcoplasmic reticulum? |
It is rungs long ways down the muscle fiber and is connected to multiple nuclei. It stores calcium which is the trigger for contraction. |
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What is a z disk to z disk for myofilaments called? |
Sarcomere - these are about 2 micrometers long. |
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What is a myofilament? |
these are thick and thin proteins which contract. |
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Name two myofilament proteins. |
Actin thin, myosin, thick. |
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What is a myofibril? |
A chain of muscle cells, there are many myofibrils in a fascicle. |
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What is a sarcomere? |
Z disk - z disk length of a myofibril, a single contractile unit, about 2 micro meters long. Link actin filaments. |
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What is a Myocyte? |
Another word of myofiber (muscle cell). |
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What are the thin myofilaments made up of? |
Actin. |
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What are myofibrils made up of? |
Myofilaments Actin(thin) and myosin(thick). |
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What happening during muscle contraction? |
Actin is drawn towards each other over the myosin. Z lines move closer together 2um - 1 um. |
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Mysoin and actin interdigitate. What is interdigitate? |
interlock like the fingers of two clasped hands |
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Do actin and myosin retain there length during contraction? |
Yes |
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Does muscle contraction consume energy? |
Yes. |
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What is the essential ion used in muscle contraction? |
Ca2+ - Calcium. |
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Muscle form depends on: |
Length of muscle, number of muscle fibers and arrangement of muscle fibers. |
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Longer muscles fibers contribute to ROM (range of movement), what are the factors in involved when related muscle length to muscle movement? |
longer resting lengths of muscle fibers mean they can contract more giving more ROM, tendons between fibers prevent muscle from contracting. Muscle fibers can shorten up to 50% of there length. |
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How does the number of muscle fibers contribute to muscle form? |
The more fibers you have the more tension. tension is directly proportional to cross-sectional area. Greater CSA = greater tension. |
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What does oblique mean? |
neither parallel nor at right angles to a specified or implied line; slanting. |
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How does the arrangement of muscle fibers contribute to muscle form? |
You can fit more muscle fibers into the same space if you arrange them diagonal (oblique), this increase CSA, but shortens muscle fibers. Lower range of motion, higher tension. |
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What is line of pull? |
The line of pull is what muscle fibers branch off. Muscle fibers can branch off at one or multiple angles (uni, bi, multi). This is called a pennate structure. |
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Why does unconsciousness smooth out muscles? |
Even relaxed muscles are slightly active, nerve impulses activating muscle fibers are responsible for striations in muscle. |
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What is muscle tone? |
Muscle tone is a result of your muscles always being slightly active due to impulses from motor units. This does not produce movement and it keeps you muscles firm and healthy. It also stabilizes joints an maintains posture. |
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Put these words in order of size: Endomysium, epimysium, perimysium. |
Epimysium (outside of the muscle, under the fascia), perimysium (around the fascicles), endomysium (around the muscle fibres (muscle cells). |
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Put these words in order of size: myofibril myofibre, myofilament |
Myofibre (myocyte), myofibril (heaps of these in each myofibre), myofilament (filaments of myofibrils) |
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What is parkinsons disease. |
A disease where the motor neurons send incorrect messages to the muscles. This creates a resting tremor. |
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What is a t-tubule? |
A deep invagination of the sarcolemma. Polarises the sarcoplasmic reticulum. |
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What is the unit responsible for transmitting information from the spinal cord to the muscle? |
Motor neuron. |
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What does a motor unit consist of? |
Axon, motor neuron and branches. As well as all muscle fibres it innervates. |
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How does the motor neuron connect to the muscle? |
The neuromuscular junction connect the myelin sheath to the muscle fibre.
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What kind of signal does a motor neuron send? |
Electrical - Chemical |
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Which region of the vertebrae controls the lower appendages? |
The Lumbar (5) region. |
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Which region of the vertebrae controls the upper appendages? |
The cervical (7) region. |
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What is the term used to describe the part of the neuromuscular junction that diffuses the chemical into the muscle skeletal muscle for contraction? |
Synaptic cleft. |
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What happens to the chemical signal after it is diffused from the synaptic cleft into the skeletal muscle. |
The signal is then converted back to electrical. |
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What is the abbreviation for neuromuscular junction? |
NMJ |
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Where is the muscle fibre do motor units connect to to form neuromuscular junctions? |
The middle of the muscle fibres, to allow for maximum contraction. |
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What are the two myofilament proteins? |
Myosin and actin. |
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Name the parts of actin. |
Tropomyosin, troponin, f actin stands, g actin molecules. |
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Name the parts of myosin. |
Myosin head and shaft. |
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What part of actin does Calcium bind to and what does it do to the part? |
Troponin, causes to to change shape so the myosin can bind to it. - cause muscle contraction. |
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What does it mean by the motor units size can vary? |
A motor unit can attach to 10-1000 muscle fibres (muscle cells). |
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If a motor unit is attached to multiple muscle fibres, how many fibres can it activate at once? |
Motor units displays all or none activation of fibres. |
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Force of contraction in a whole muscle depends on? |
Muscle fibre (length, number, arrangement), Motor unit (size, number, rate of firing) and muscle attachments (tendons attach in different ways, effort needed for movement determines muscle role). |
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What are the parts of an anatomical lever? |
Lever (bone), point of fulcrum (joint), pull (muscle contraction) and load (internal (body weight), external) |
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List the three types of muscle action. |
Concentric, isometric, eccentric. |
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Define isometric muscle action. |
Muscle is active, develops tension, no change in joint position, no change in length of muscles. |
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Define eccentric muscle action. |
Muscle is active, develops tension, change in joint position, lengthening of muscle. |
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Define concentric muscle action. |
Muscle is active, develops tension, change in joint position, shortening of muscle. |
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What are the four roles of muscle movement? |
Agonist, antagonist, stabiliser, neutraliser. |
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What muscle role does an agonist play? |
The agonist act concentrically (shortens). |
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What muscle role does an antagonist play? |
The antagonist act eccentrically (lengthening), they control speed and amount of movement. |
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What muscle role does a stabiliser play? |
The stabiliser acts isometrically. Bicep when holding a book still. |
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What muscle role does a neutraliser play? |
The neutraliser eliminates unwanted movement caused by another muscle. When drinking from a glass you want flexion and not supination, pronator muscle minimise the spinating effect of the biceps brachii. |
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Why is there a potential cavity in synovial joints? |
To allow movement. |
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What shape of joint is the wrist? How does this relate to avaliable movement? |
The wrist is an ellipsoid joint. The ellipsoid joint can move flexion/extension, adduction/abduction(circumduction). |
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What are the layer of connective tissue associated with skeletal muscles? What are there functions? |
The endomysium (ensheaths myocytes (muscles cell/fibre), the perimysium (ensheaths fascicles (groups of muscle fibers), and epimysium (surrounds the skeletal muscle). Fascia is on the outside of the muscle. |
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What is the difference between a myofibril and a myofibre? |
The myofibre is made up of many myofibril. |
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If a skeletal muscle has long fibres, what does that indicate about the function of that muscle? |
The muscle has a high range of motion (ROM), as it has the ability to contract a longer distance. |
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What is the function between 1:5 and 1:500 motor units? |
Finer motor control, the more motor units you have. |
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What are the ten muscles you have to know, inferior to superior. |
Tibialis surae, tibialis anterior, hamstrings (hip and knee) (Bicepsfemoris, Semi membranosus, Semi tendinosus), Quadriceps femoris (Lateralisvasti, intermedius vasti, medialis vasti and rectus femoris), Gluteus maximus, Iliposoas, Triceps brachii, biceps brachii, deltoid. |
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What are the ten muscles you have to know, superior to inferior. |
Deltoid, Biceps brachii, Triceps brachii, Iliposoas, Gluteus maximus, Quadriceps femoris (Lateralis vasti, intermedius vasti, medialis vasti and rectus femoris), Hamstrings (hip and knee) (Biceps femoris, Semi membranosus, Semi tendinosus), Tibialis anterior, Tibilias surae. |
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Deltoid: Joint, location, principal movement, attachemnts. |
Joint: Shoulder Location: Lateral Principal Movement: Abduction Attachments: Proximal: Scapula/clavial (pectoral girdle), Distal: Humerus |
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Biceps brachii: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Elbow Location: Anterior Principal movement: Flexion Attachments: Proximal: Scapula, Distal: Radius |
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Triceps brachii: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Elbow Location: Posterior Principal movement: Extension Attachments: Proximal: Scapula, humerus Distal: Ulna (olecranon process) |
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Iliposoas: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Hip Location: Anterior Principal movement: Abduction Attachments: Proximal: Veterbrae(T12 - L5) and front of Pelvis Distal: Femur |
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Gluteus maximus: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Hip Location: Posterior Principal movement: Extension Attachments: Proximal: Pelvis, sacrum, Distal: Femur |
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Quadriceps femoris: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Knee Location: Anterior Principal movement: Extension Attachments: Proximal: Femur, Distal: Tibia via the patella tendon. |
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Hamstrings (hip): Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Hip Location: Posterior Principal movement: Extension Attachments: Proximal: Femur, pelvis, Distal: Tibia Fibula |
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Hamstrings (knee): Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Knee Location: Posterior Principal movement: Flexion, rotation when knee is flexed Attachments: Proximal: Femur, pelvis, Distal: Tibia and Fibula |
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Tibialis anterior: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Ankle Location: Anterior Principal movement: Dorsiflexion Attachments: Proximal: Tibia, Distal: Medial tarsal |
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Triceps surnae: Joint, location, principal movement, attachments. |
Joint: Ankle Location: Posterior Principal movement: Plantar flexion Attachments: Proximal: Tibia, Fibula, Femur, Distal: Calcaneus via tendon |
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What are the general function of muscle? |
Heat production, posture, movement, communication. |
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Where does the line of gravity travel? |
From the middle of the thorax, posterior to hip joint, anterior to the knee and anterior to the ankle. |
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What are ligaments made out of? |
DFCT - Dense fibrous connective tissue.
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Why are ligaments energy efficient? |
Ligaments are energy efficient because they are made of dense fibrous connective tissue - which is avascular, energy efficient |
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What is the position of the hip joint during bipedal standing. Where is the line of gravity? |
Extension, it is locked by ligaments. Posterior to the hip joint.
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What is the position of the Knee joint during bipedal standing. Where is the line of gravity? |
Joint pushed into extension, ligaments are tight, no muscles needed to contract for standing. Line of gravity is anterior of the knee joint. |
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What is the position of the Ankle joint during bipedal standing. Where is the line of gravity? |
'Falls' into dorsiflexion, not locked, plantarflexors stabilise, energy consumed. Line of gravity in anterior to ankle joint. |
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What muscles are used for standing? |
A little bit of the tibialis anterior and triceps surae. Mostly ligaments, little energy is consumed. |
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Name the eight stances/swings of the gait cycle. |
Initial contact (toe off), loading response (dorsiflex), mid stance (toe off), terminal stance (heel strike), Pre-swing, initial swing (plantarflex), mid swing, terminal swing. |
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Name the two phases of the gait cycle. |
Stance phase and swing phase. |
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What are the name of the two calf muscles (triceps surae)? |
Gastrocnemius and soleus. |
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Which phase of the gait cycle haves your foot leave the ground. |
The swing phase |
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What are the three joints used for walking? |
Hip, Knee and Ankle joint. |
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What are the four principal tissue types? |
Epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous. |
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What is the structure of epithelial tissue? |
layers/sheets of cells, very little matrix |
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What is the structure of connective tissue? |
sparse cells, lots of matrix containing fibres |
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What is the structure of muscle tissue? |
long fibre like cells, strong fibres capable of pulling loads |
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What is the structure of nervous tissue? |
highly cellular of many types, conducting and supporting |
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What is the function of epithelial tissue? |
cover/protects body surfaces, lines cavities |
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Name three examples of epithelial tissue. |
skin, lining of tracts and glands |
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What is the function of connective tissue? |
supports structures, transports substances |
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Name 4 examples of connective tissues. |
bones, cartilage/tendons, fat, blood |
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What is the function of muscle tissue? |
produces movement and heat |
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What are the three types of muscle tissue. |
Smooth (involuntary movement), rough (voluntary movement), and cardiac(heart muscle) |
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What is the function of nervous tissue. |
communication and coordination between body parts |
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Give three examples of where nervous tissue is found. |
nerves, sensory organs, brain and spinal cord |
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What makes up the tissue matrix contain? |
Water, proteins, proteoglycans |
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What is ECF? |
Extracellular fluid (the cells immediate environment), it is 1/3 of the bodies total water. It supplies the correct temperature, pH, route for nutrient delivery and waste disposal etc |
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What is ICF? |
Intracellular fluid - contained within the cell, it contains 2/3 of the bodies water. |
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Maintaining the ECF allows: |
Multi-cellular organisms to explore, and function in a diverse range of environments. |
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Why is homeostasis important? |
By maintaining the constancy of theECF, multicellular organisms canexplore, and function in, a diverserange of environments…. |
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List 4 molecules that need to be controlled. |
Sodium (Na+), Calcium (Ca++), Glucose (C6H12O6), Postassium (K+)
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What is the purpose of homeostasis? |
Tto keep internal environment(ECF - extra cellular fluid) of the body relatively constant, i.e. within the narrow limits, in response to changing external environment to meet the needs for the proper functioning of the cell the enables the organism to explore, and function in a diverse range of environments. |
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State typical ranges of 3 key homeostatic variables within the body. |
Temperature: Core temperature range 36 - 37.5 degrees celciuspH level - 7.35 - 7.45Glucose - Normal Fasting: 3.5 - 6 mml/l and non fasting: 3.5 - 8 mmol/l |
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What is the range that core body temperature needs to be kept in and what happens if it goes lower or higher then this range? |
36 - 37.5 degrees celcius. At higher temperatures proteins start to denature, at lower temperatures chemical reactions slow down preventing normal cell function. Nerve cells are particularly affected by temperature causing unconsciousness. |
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What range does the bodies pH level need to be kept within, what happens if it goes above or below this range. |
7.35 - 7.45 - Lower (acidosis) neuronal function and consciousness, Higher (alkalosis) over-excitability of nerve and muscles. |
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What range does the bodies pH level need to be kept within, what happens if it goes above or below this range. |
7.35 - 7.45 - Lower (acidosis) neuronal function and loss of consciousness, Higher (alkalosis) over-excitability of nerve and muscles. |
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List three homeostatic variables that are sensed at a cellular level. |
Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+) and Calcium (Ca++) |
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What is the normal concentration in ECF of Sodium? |
135- 145 mmol/l |
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What is normal total plasma concentration of Calcium? |
2.2 - 2.6 mmol/l |
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What is the normal concentration in ECF of potassium? |
3.5 - 5 mmol/l |
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What is the main determinant of resting membrane potential(RMP)? |
Potassium |
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What is the function of sodium in the ECF(2)? |
Largely determines extracellular volume(influences blood pressure) and important in action potential generation in nerve and muscle tissue. |
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What is the function of sodium in the ECF(2)? |
Largely determines extracellular volume(influences blood pressure) and important in action potential generation in nerve and muscle tissue. |
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What is diffusion? |
Diffusionresultsfromtherandommovementofindividualmoleculesasaconsequenceoftheirthermalenergy. |
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If diffusion fast or slow over short distances? |
Fast - rapid. |
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Which substances are able to diffuse directly through the lipid bi-layer of our cells, down their concentration gradient(3)? |
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and steroid hormones. |
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What is the difference between passive diffusion and active diffusion? |
Active diffusion involved particles being moved across the membrane against their concentration gradient(this uses ATP - example: proton pumps). Simple (passive) diffusion is when particles are moved down there concentration gradient. |
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List 3 ions that require specific channels for diffusion. |
K+, Na+, Ca++ |
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What is the channel called that allows diffusion of water. |
Aquaporins. |
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What is a leak channel? |
Channels (usually specific)that open and close spontaneously or in response to stimuli (stimuli can include chemicals (ligand gated) or change in membrane potential (voltage gated)) |
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What does "ligand gated" refer to? |
A leak channel that responds to chemical stimuli to open and close to let molecules through a plasma membrane. |
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What does "voltage gated" refer to? |
A leak channel that responds to a change in membrane potential to open and close to let molecules through a plasma membrane. |
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What is the term for: A substances binds to carrier on one side of the membrane which induces the carrier to change shape and release of substance to the other side. |
Carrier mediated passive transport (facilitated diffusion)
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What process(type of reaction) does ATP go through to give energy to proteins pumps to pump ions against there concentration gradient?
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Hydrolysis.
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What is active transport? |
Pumping ions or molecules across the membrane against there concentration gradient using ATP and protein pumps. |
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What is the function of active transport? |
maintains ionic gradients, helps regulate cell volume. |
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What is osmosis? |
Osmosis is the net movement of water across a membrane down its own concentration gradient(or toward the region of higher solute concentration). |
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What is osmotic pressure? |
The pressure required to stop osmosis. Measured on the side with the higher volume of water. Note solute concentration will be the same because of osmosis. Osmosis can cause damage to cells through to much pressure of solute concentration is too much inside the cell. |
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What is osmolarity? |
Osmolarity is a measure of the total number of solute particles per litre of solution. unit is osmol/L or mosmol/l and normally 275-300 mosmol/l
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What is the term used to describe the effect that a solution has on cell volume? |
Tonicity |
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What are the three states of tonicity? |
Hypotonic (swells), hypertonic(shrinks) and isotonic(no change). |
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What is RMP and what is its function? |
Resting membrane potential. RMP refers to the fact that the inside of the cell membrane is negatively charged compared to its external surface. The magnitude of this negativity is typically about -70mV |
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Define RMP. |
The resting membrane potential is an electrical potential that exists across the cell membrane and is due to different concentrations of ions on each side of the membrane and their respective permeabilites to it. |
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What is the major determinant of RMP and why? |
The cell membrane is normally much more permeable to K+ than other ions and so K+ is the major determinant of the RMP. K+ ICF = 150 mmol/L and ECF is 4 mmol/l. This variance generates RMP across the cell membrane (-70mV). |
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Homeostasis: What is a regulated variable? |
The variable the system senses and tries to keep stable. |
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Homeostasis: What is the set point? |
The target value for the regulated variable. |
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Homeostasis: What is the reference (normal) range? |
Values of the regulated variation within acceptable limits.
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What does the term inter-individual variation mean in relation to homeostasis |
Variation between individuals relating to their reference ranges. This is affected by genetic variation. |
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What does the term intra-individual variation mean in relation to homeostasis? |
Variation within an individual, reactions to environment, circadian rythum etc, different times of the day affect your levels, temperature, glucose and pH |
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How is inter-individual variation accounted for in normal set point ranges for the populus. |
Healthy range is considered to be within 2 standard deviations from the average. |
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What are the key components for the negative feedback system? |
Sensor, integrator, effector(s) and communication pathways. |
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Explain what a sensor does as part of the negative feedback system. |
Monitors the actual value of the regulated variable. |
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Explain what an integrator does as part of the negative feedback system. |
Compares actual and set point values, determines and controls the response. |
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Explain what an effector(s) does as part of the negative feedback system. |
produce the response(s) that restore the regulated variable to its 'set point' |
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Explain what communication pathways does as part of the negative feedback system. |
carry signal between components (effector, sensor, integrator) |
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What is a negative feedback system? |
Negative feedback systems oppose thechange in the regulated variable and move itback toward the ‘set-point’ |
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Name two types of physiological communication pathways. |
Neuronal and hormonal. |
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What are some features of neuronal pathways. |
Involves action potentials in axons and neurotransmiter release at synapses Fast(upto100m/s) Specific Good for when conditions are changing rapidly and where an immediate response is required to prevent tissue damage or loss of homeostatic control Good for brief responses |
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What are some features of hormonal pathways. |
– Hormonesreleasedintotheblood(orECF) – Targetanycellsthathavereceptorsspecificfortheparticularhormone - soonehormonecanpotentiallyaffectseveral tissuesororgans – Goodforwidespread,sustainedresponsese.g.fluidvolumeregulation |
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What are some features of hormonal pathways. |
– Hormones released into the blood(or ECF) Target any cells that have receptors specific for the particular hormone so one hormone can potentially affect several tissues or organs Good for wide spread, sustained responses e.g. fluid volume regulation |
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How does feed-forward work? |
The integration centre establishes a future ‘predicted value’ for the regulated variable, compares this with the ‘set-‐point’ and makes anticipatory corrections |
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What is positive feedback in relation to homeostasis? |
Positive feedback is a response to a stimulus thatmoves the controlled variable even further away from the‘set point’ i.e. it reinforces the initial change |
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What does "deep" mean (anatomical term)? |
Further from the surface. |
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What does "superficial" mean (anatomical term)? |
Closer the surface |
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What does inversion mean in relation to anatomical terms? |
Sole of foot faces toward the midline. |
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What does eversion mean in relation to anatomical terms? |
Sole of foot faces away from midline. |
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What are the functions of the skeletal system (5)? |
• Support • Movement • Protection • Storage • RBC formation |
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What are the two types of bone tissue and where are they found? |
Compact(found where strength and load bearing is needed) and cancellous(found where shock absorption is required). |
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What are the bone classes (4)? |
Long bone, short bone, flat bone, irregular bone. |
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What characteristics do long bones have and what is there function? |
Longer then they are wide, function as levers for movement. |
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What characteristics do short bones have and what is there function? |
Near equal width and length, weight bearing and shock absorption, nearly all cancellous bone. |
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What characteristics do flat bones have and what is there function? |
Protection-cranial bones, muscle attachment(scapula), thin plates of compact bone- some cancellous. |
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What is a characteristic of irregular bones? |
Variable shape and function. |
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Name all the bone in the axial skeleton. |
Skull:Cranium(vault), facial bones, mandible. Rib cage: Ribs and sternum Vertebrae (cervical(7), thoracic(12), lumbar(5)), sacrum and coccyx. |
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Name all the bones in the appendicular skeleton. |
Pictorial girdle: clavicle, scapula Arm: Humerus Forearm: Ulna, Radius Hand: Carpal, Metacarpal, phalanges Pelvic girdle: Coccyx, sacrum. Thigh: Femur Leg: Tibia, Fibula Foot: Tarsal, metatarsal, phalanges. |
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Bone is made up of a cellular component and an extracellular component, name the two parts of the extra cellular component and what percentage they make up of the extracellular component, function and makeup. |
Organic (33% of matrix) -Collagen (protein) -Ground substance (Proteoglycans) -Function = resist tension. Inorganic (67% of matrix) -Hydroxyapatite (mineral salts) -Hardness -Function = resist compression. |
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What are the three cells in bones and what are there functions? |
Osteoblasts (build ECM), osteoclasts (breakdown ECM) and osteocytes(mature bone cells) |
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What are the microscopic parts of compact bone(5) and what are there functions. |
Osteon (longitudinal cylinder within compact bone), lamellae(form a series of cylinders running longitudinally down the shaft = osteon) , central canal (blood vessel and nerves), canaliculi(channels for osteocytes through ECM), lacunae (lakes for osteocytes) |
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What is an osteon and what is its function? |
Osteons are found in compact bone, they are the longitudinal cylinder, they provide osteocytes with nutrients. |
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Where are osteocytes found? |
In lacuna on the surfaces of the trabeculae. |
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What is a trabeculae? |
Struts of lamella found in cancellous bone. |
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What are the structs called in cancellous bone and what are they made out of? |
Trabeculae, made out of lamella. |
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What is ossification? |
The process that turns cartilage into bone. |
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What is the primary center for ossification, what is the secondary center for ossificaiton? |
Primary: Diaphysis, secondary: epiphysis.
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What is the periosteum of a bone and what are the function of osteoblasts in relation to the periosteum. |
A dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except at the surfaces of the joints, osteoblasts increase width. |
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What is the endosteum and what is the function of osteoclasts in relation to the medullary cavity? |
A thin vascular membrane that lines the bone tissue that forms the medullary cavity. Osteoclasts from the endosteum mould the bone shape and form the medullary cavity.
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What is osteoporosis? |
Osteoporosis is when the osteoclasts take over the osteoblasts. Compact bone becomes thinner and more porous. Cancellous bone also loses volume. |
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How many stages are there in fracture repair? |
4 stages. |
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What happens in stage 1 of fracture repair? |
Haematoma is formed, capillaries to pump blood to area and phagocytes to clean up debrie. |
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What happens in stage 2 of fracture repair? |
Chondroblasts and fibroblasts create a fibrocartilaginous callus. (6 weeks) |
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What happens in stage 3 of fracture repair? |
Bony callus is created by osteoblasts. |
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What happens in stage 4 of fracture repair? |
Osteoclasts remodel bone. (12 weeks) |
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Name 3 types of fractures.
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Open(compound) fracture, closed fracture (does not pierce the skin), greenstick (bone does not come away from other bone)
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Identify the three columns in this picture. |
Feed forward, negative feedback and integration centre. |
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What is an example of positive feedback? |
Action of oxytocin induces more oxytocin secretion = positive feedback |
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What are the 5 key points of the anatomical position? |
Upright, face forwards, feet together, palms face forward and same regardless of motion. |
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What plane does flexion/extension happen in? |
Sagittal plane. |
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What movements happen in the coronal plane? |
Abduction and adduction. |
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What is circumduction? |
The combination of flexion/extension, abduction/adduction. |
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What plane does rotation happen on? |
transverse plane. |
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Where are osteocytes found? |
In lacunae. |
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Muscle is made up of? |
Fascicles. |
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Muscle fascicles is made up of? |
Muscle fibres (muscle cells). |
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Muscle fibres (muscle cells) are made up of? |
Myofibrils |
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Myofibrils are made up of? |
Myofilaments (actin and myosin). |
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Is actin or myosin connected to z disk? |
Actin. |
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Name the 7 shapes of synovial joints. |
Hinge, pivot, ellipsoid, condylar, saddle, ball and socket, plane. |
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What type of joint is that between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula bones (tibiofibular joint)? |
Fibrous |
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A motor unit is? |
A motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates. |
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What is a joint? |
A joint holds bones together, involves bone shapes and soft tissues, allow free movement or controlled movement. |
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What are the two soft tissues associated with joints? |
Hyaline/articular cartilage, fibrocartilage. |
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Where do you feed chondrocytes (cartilage cells)? |
In lacuna, just like osteocytes. |
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Where do you find chondrocytes (cartilage cells)? |
In lacuna, just like osteocytes. |
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What are some features of fibrocartilage? |
Collagen fibres bundled throughout the matrix, orientation of fibres aligns with stresses, function=resist compression AND tension |
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Where do you find hyaline cartilage? |
On the surface of bone creating a frictionless surface for movement. |
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What is a meniscus? |
It is cartilage of the knee joint, it improves bony congruence by deepening the articulation at the knee, can adapt its shape to stresses on joint movement. Made of fibrocartilage. |
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What are ligaments and tendons made out of? |
DFCT - dense fibrous connective tissue. |
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What is a ligament and what is its function? |
To attach bone to bone, function = restriction of movement away from itself. |
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What is a tendon and what is its function? |
Tendons connect muscle to bone. Function = facilitates and controls movement. |
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What does synarthroses mean in relation to joints, and what kind of joint does it describe? |
Synarthroses are immovable joints, fibrous joints such as the sutures in the skull, syndesmoses (fibrous ligament) connect radius and ulna and gomphoses, unique joint in the root of the tooth and jaw |
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What does amphiarthroses mean in relation to joining and which joints does it describe? |
Bones articulate to form carilagnous joints are joined together by hyaline cartilage or fibrous cartilage these allow slight movement (amphiarthroses). the hip bones are joined together by a amphiarthroses joint. |
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What does diarthroses mean in relation to joints and which joints does it describe? |
Diarthroses -majority are synovial joints, freely movable. Most mobile and most numerous. |
