Histology Exam 1

Front 1

anatomy

Back 1

branch of science that deals with external form and internal organization of plants and animals

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Gross anatomy

Back 2

direct and viewable by naked eye

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Microscopic anatomy

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indirect and beyond the reach of the naked eye

ei. histology

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5 types of Microscopes

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1. visible light
2. ultra violet - 2X resolution
3. X-ray microscope Short WL - higher resolution
4. Electron Microscope
5. Compound microscope

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Visible Microscope 5 types

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1. optical
2. polarizing
3. phase contrast
4. interference
5. dark field

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Electron Microscope 2 types

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1. TEM (transmission e- micro)2D on fluorescent screen
2. SEM (scanning e- micro)3D - bombards surface

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2 techniques

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1. autoradiography - method of chemical radiation
2. immunocytochemistry - method enables investigators to locate site of antibody-antigen reactions

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2 types of stains

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1. nuclear region - hematoxylin (basic stain)
2. cytoplasmic region - Eosin (acidic dye)

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2 important considerations regarding study of histology methodolgy

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1. kind of microscope
2. preparation of tissue

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preparation steps of dead tissue
(7)

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1. obtain tissue
2. fixation
3. dehydration
4. clearing
5. embedding
6. sectioning
7. staining & mounting

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How to obtain a tissue (3 ways)

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1. biopsy - small sample w/needle
2. surgical excision - removal of tissue
3. postmortem dissection

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Fixation

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Solution administered that stops biological activity.

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Dehydration

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increase the % of alcohol until it's all alcohol

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Clearing

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uses a solution that mixes with alcohol and paraffin (Xylol)

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Embedding

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paraffin infiltrates tissue and crevices

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Sectioning

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make the tissue thin enough to see through...cut with microtome

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artifacts

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flaws caused by faulty technique

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Cell theory (5 parts)

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1. all living material is composed of cells
2. cells arise from pre-existing cells
3. all metabolic reactions of living organisms take place in cells
4. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living matter
5. composed of protoplasmic

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protoplasm

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the living substance of life; the nuclear plasm + the cytoplasm

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compounds of protoplasm (5)

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1. Water - 75%
2. Proteins - AA, cell structure - 10-20%
3. Lipids - E* source & storage 2-3%
4. Carbohydrates 1% energy
5. Salts 1% equilibrium

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properties/characteristics of protoplasm (10)

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1. irritability - respond to change
2. conductivity - transmition of effect from 1 part to another
3. contractivity & mobility - contract for movement
4. metabolism - burn enery
5.growth - increase in size
6. reproduction - increase in number
7. absorption - cells absorb substances
8. secretion - release of substances to be used elsewhere
9. excretion - waste elimination
10. respiration - ability to bring in O2

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structures of protoplasm (3)

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1. cytoplasmic matrix
2. Organelles (permanent resident, living, structural)
3. Inclusions

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cytoplasmic matrix (ground substance)

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1. structureless medium
2. contains fibrillar components (cytoskeletal system)

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organelles

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1. Rough ER
2. Smooth ER
3. lysosomes
4. mitochondria

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inclusions

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1. non-living components of cytoplasm
2. no structure
3. transient (fat)

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Cell membrane

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AKA - plasma membrane or plasmalemma
Thin membrane separating cell content from external environment

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fluid mosaic model

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AKA - lipid globular-protein mosaic model

2 lipid layers with gobular protein in between

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glycocalyx

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thin external cell coat rich in polysaccharides

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smooth ER

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* no ribosomes
* lipid and cholesterol metabolism
* found in smooth muscle
* closed "mesh", 3D network of tubules

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rough ER

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* contains ribosomes
* irregular network of tubules
* cisternae => parallel flat sacs
* function of protein synthesis

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mitochondria

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*bi-membranous -
1. outer - smooth, continuous
2. inner - pleats and folds(cristae)to increase surface area

* Self duplicating

* functions to provide E*

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intercrystal space

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inner membrane of mitochondria

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intracrystal space

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* space between the outer and inner membranes of the mitochondria

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mitochondrial matrix

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*contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes, and proteins

* found in the internal cavity

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lysosome

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* acidic environment (pH 5)
* digestive system of cell
* produced by golgi apparatus

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peroxisomes

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* protects against peroxide build up
* found in liver and kidney cells
* derived from the Rough ER

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centrioles

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* self replicating
* function; center of organization for microtubules
* give rise to cilia and flagellum

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microfilaments

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* component within cytoplasmic matrix
* contractile; promote cell shape changes and aid in motility
* found in embryonic epithelium (undergoing rapid change)

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intermediate filaments

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* function; "anchorage"
* location; cytoplasm of epithelium
* helps make epithelium cells hard
(keratin, neurofilaments, glial filaments)

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thick filaments (3 functions)

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* function
1. maintain cell shape
2. form spindles during mitosis
3. core of cilia and flagella

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nucleus

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* 2 membranes
* contains DNA
* 2 types of chromatin
* function: regulate metabolic activities of cell

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Found inside nuclear membrane (3)

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1. nucleoplasm
2. chromatin material
3. nucleolus

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2 types of chromatin

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1. heterochromatin - coiled or condensed during interphase
2. euchromatin - dispersed during interphase

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cell cycle

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* tissue culture cells undergo rapid cell growth and division

* constant doubling

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Cell cycle phases

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1. G1-phase
2. S-phase
3. G2-phase
4. M-phase

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S-phase

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* period of active DNA sythesis

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G1-phase

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* period of active RNA and protein synthesis

* both the nucleus and cytoplasm of daughter cells enlarge

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G2-phase

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* period where there is no DNA sythesis

* preparation right before mitosis

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Meisos

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* 2 successive nuclear divisions
with 1 replication of chromosome, resulting in 4 daughter cells with half the chromosome number of mother and father cell

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purpose of 1st meiotic division

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* to reduce the number of chromosomes from 46 duplicated to 23 (or haploid)

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5 stages of prophase I

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1. leptotene
2. zygotene
3. pachytene
4. diplotene
5. diakinesis

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leptotene

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* first phase of prophase I
* chromosomes are thin and threadlike
* chromomeres -> bead like structures on chromosomes - site of "true gene"

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zygotene

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* 2nd stage of prophase I
* pairing of chromosomes

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pachytene

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* 3rd stage of prophase I
* condensation of chromosomes
* precursors (DNA)are added
* pairing of chromosomes completed

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diplotene

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* 4th stage of prophase I
* crossing over occurs (chiasmata) - genetic material exchanged.

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diakinesis

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* 5th stage of prophase I
* max condensation of chromosomes
* nuclear membrane begins to break down

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metaphase I

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* chromosomes line up at equator
* nuclear envelop disappears
* mission - 1/2 # of chromosomes

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anaphase I

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* chromosomes seperate

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prophase II

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* centrioles reduplicate and move to poles
* spindle fibers begin to form
* nuclear envelope dissolves again

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metaphase II

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* pairs of chromatids line up on the metaphase plate

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anaphase II

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* centromeres duplicate and divide - initiates anaphase II
* chromatids separate and move to poles

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telophase II

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* spindle fibers disappear
* nuclear membrane appears
* furrow cleavage forms
** 4 cells are formed

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four types of shapes that can be found in amniocentesis (differences are in the centromere location and arm lengths)

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1. metacentric
2. submetacentric
3. acrocentric
4. telocentric

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metacentric

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* arms approximately equal in length - centromere is in middle

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submetacentric

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* unequal arms - centromere is up a little from the middle - making a sort of upside down L shape.

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acrocentric

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* centromere very close to top arms which are very small in comparison to the lower arms

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telocentric

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* centromere at the proximal end but upper arms are missing

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karyotype

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* name given to group of characteristics that ID's a particular chromosomal set - naming the chromosomes

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3 rules to classification of epithelium

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1. # of cell layers
2. shape of the cell along free surface
3. surface specializations

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surface specializations (5)

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a. ciliated
b. keratinized
c. flagella
d. microvilli
e. stereocilia

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microvilli

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* small finger-like projestions on the apical (free) surface.
* forms a striated brush border
* located in absorption cells .5-1 micrometer

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stereocilia

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* promote absorption
* longer microvilli
* non motile

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ciliated

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* motile processes
* 7-10 micrometers
* fluid like forward and backward motion

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isochromal VS metochronal

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* defines movement of cilia
* isochronal - beat together in rhythm
* metochronal- beat in sequence

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axoneme

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core substance of cilia (skeletal structure)

* propels fluid and particles thru lumen of organs
* moves mucus over epithelial surface

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flagella

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structure with whip like movement
* 1 per cell
* longer than cilia (15-10 micro.)
* in nephron and rete testis

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membrane specializations (5)

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1. zonula occludens
2. zonula adherens
3. macula adherens
4. gap junctions
5. hemi desmosome

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zonula occludens

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AKA: tight junctions

* creates barrier to keep granules from getting into epithelium cell

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zonula Definition

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* goes completely around the cell

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tight junction VS membrane junction

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* membrane junction - membrane fuses 1x and is referred to as "leaky"

* tight junction - membrane fuses multiple times

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zonula adherens

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AKAs (3): intermediary junction,
belt desmisome, terminal bar

* around entire cell
* attaches cells together

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macula adherens

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* numerous in cells with mechanical stress

AKA: desosome

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gap junctions

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* used for cell to cell communication and are found in smooth muscle

* transmit electrical impulses

AKA: nexus