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214 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Health psychology? |
-promotion and maintenance of health
-how do we get people to stay healthy |
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What is health? |
positive state of physical, mental and social well-being
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What is the biomedical model/physiological psychology? |
-the traditional approach to health/illness
-all diseases explained by biological processes (ex: heredity) or impaired physiological processes -injury -biochemical imbalances -infections -all presumes some abnormality to the body |
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What are the limitations to the biomedical model/ physiological psychology?
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-what if it's situational?
-doesn't take into account of individual choices, behaviors, and social factors -only saying something is physiologically wrong with you |
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Examples of Limitations of Coronary Heart Disease with the Biomedical model.
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-leading cause of death in U.S.
-plaque build up in arteries, hard for blood to pass through Risk Factors -high cholestrol -smoking -stress -obesity -family history all except family history is pattern and lifestyle factors |
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What is the biopsychosocial model?
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Biological factors:
-genetics -physiological and neurological structures -physical system (cells-tissues-organs-etc) Psychological factors -behavior and mental processes -lifestyle -personality -cognition- how we think about things, what our interpretations are -emotions- how we feel -motivations- how motivated we are to take care of ourselves -health beliefs and expectations social factors -society (values, cultures within our society has a great impact on our health, wellness, illness) -mass media- our looks, what people expect -community -individuals- who are similar or dissimilar to you -environmental- physical characteristics--no bike lanes or no sidewalks--not everyone has access to this -relationships(family, friends) |
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What is the holistic approach? |
-interplay of biological, psychological, social factors--all related
-considers the whole person--need to treat the whole body not just parts |
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What is systems theory?
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-nature organized by hierarchy of units- the units and components are interrelated
-all components interrelated -think of unit as yourself, body is one unit relationship is one unit |
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What is mortality? |
death
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What is morbidity?
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illness or injury
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What is prevalence? |
# past or new cases at a given time
-estimates how common a condition is within a population or over a certain period of time ex: how many people are smoking |
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What is incidence?
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# of new cases during specified period
-the risk of developin ga new condition within a specified period of time ex: new adolescent smokers before 2010 |
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What is epidemic?
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rapid increase in incidence of something--exceed what we expect
ex: obesity |
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What is independent variable?
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predictor
-hypothesized cause or treatment -what is manipulated ex: Does appetite affect weight loss? IV: appetite DV: weight loss |
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What is dependent variable?
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outcome
-believed to change as a result of the IV -what is changed because of the IV ex: Does appetite affect weight loss? IV: appetite DV: weight loss |
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What is experimental research?
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-only methods used to identify cause-effect relationships between 2 or more variables
-IV's are manipulated, controlled or measured -Purpose: test hypotheses to explain (causal) relationships in controlled settings (experiment) |
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Can you always assume the IV is the cause of change in the DV?
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Not always
-appetite -> weightloss -there might be outlying factors Problem: there can be pre-existing differences that influence the DV -many different reasons why Solution: random assignment -participants have an equal probability of being assigned to any group so they have an equal probability to be in different groups |
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What are the different groups you can manipulate in an experiment?
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Experimental group
-get treatment ex: takes daily drugs to reduce appetite Control group -no treatment, "the usual" ex: no drugs, no instruction Placebo group -sham treatment -allow for double blindness ex: takes daily placebo drug to "reduce appetite" |
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What are the different types of non-experimental research?
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-no manipulations of IV
-no random assignment 1) Correlational studies 2)Quasi-Experimental studies 3) Retrospective design 4) Prospective design |
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What is a correlational study?
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-establish degree of a statistical relationship (correlation) between two variables
-strength and direction of this association is measured by a correlation coefficient purpose: associates aid in predictions—then if it is related can apply it to an experimental design ex: is sleep associated with the immune system? |
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What is correlation coefficient?
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Correlation coefficient (r=+1.00 to -1.00)
-perfect positive correlation: +1.00 -no relationship(0.00) -perfect negative correlation (-1,00) -relationship between the quantities such that when one changes, the other one does |
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What are Quasi-experimental studies?
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-IV(s) may or may not be manipulated
-no random assignment -groups based on existing variable (ex: gender) |
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What is Retrospective design?
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-look back at participants histories, past
-ex: childhood experiences, what were their behaviors |
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What is prospective design?
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-look forward, follow over time
ex: long term study |
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Why do non-experimental research?
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When we cant:
1) randomly assign people: -impossible (to reassign gender) -unethical (to make someone smoke) 2)manipulate predictors -how does height influence salary? (can't make them taller) -age related changes (can't manipulate their age) -No causal inferences--only association |
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What are the two types of developmental research?
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when we cannot manipulate age...
Cross sectional: -individuals measured once -snap shot in time -a survey Longitudinal -same individuals measured multiple times over months or years -two or more measurements or observations |
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What is the function of neurons?
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communicate messages throughout the body via nervous system
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What are the different types and functions of neurons?
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1) sensory
-send messages from sense organs to brain or spinal cords ex: eyes, skin, nose 2)motor: send signals from nervous system to glands and muscles in your body ex: enables you to move 3) interneurons: carry info between brain and spinal cord neurons ex: most of these neurons in the body |
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What is a neurotransmitter?
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-how messages are transmitted and communicated between the neurons
-chemicals that are released to the synaptic cleft, cross over synapse and that's how it gets transmitted to another neuron who receives it |
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What makes up the nervous system?
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1) Peripheral
2) Central NS |
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What makes up the CNS?
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1) Brain
2) Spinal Cord -links brain to body -acts with/without brain (reflex) |
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What makes up the hindbrain?
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Medulla
Cerebellum Pons Reticular formation |
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What does the Medulla do?
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-physio functions
-heartbeat, breathing -automatic functioning, just occur do not think about it |
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What does the cerebellum do?
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part of the hindbrain
-10% of the brain -skilled movements -coordination, balance -regulates posture and muscle tone |
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What do pons do?
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part of the hind brain
-connects medulla and cerebellum |
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What is the function of reticular formation?
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part of the hind brain
-sleep, arousal, attention |
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What makes up the forebrain?
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cerebrum
limbic system thalamus hypothalamus |
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What is the cerebrum like?
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it consists of two halves
-largest structure of the brain Right Hemisphere -visual and spatial -insight, creativity -emotional Left Hemisphere -language -reasoning -logic, math -right hemisphere controls left side of the body, left hemisphere controls the right side of the body |
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What is the function of the limbic system?
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includes several brain structures
-expressing and recognizing emotions center |
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What is the function of the thalamus?
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-integrates sensory input from the environment
-sensory relay station |
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What is the function of the hypothalamus?
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-hunger, sex, temp, aggression, bio clock
-maintains homeostasis (balance) -organizes responses to stress |
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What is the function of the frontal lobe?
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-largest of all lobes
-voluntary movement -working memory--executive functions like planning, thinking, impulsivity -planning, learning -emotion -mostly motor behavior not sensory or perception |
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What is the function of the temporal lobe?
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-hearing
-speech comprehension --need to determine where something is coming from first, sound needs to be processed and comprehend what the sound is |
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What is the function of the parietal lobe?
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-body movement
-touch -temperature -pain sensory stuff, awareness of body, position, movement, coordination -stores memory of how things feel |
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What is the function of the occipital lobe?
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-visual processing
-visual memory -ability to recognize people |
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What makes up the peripheral nervous system?
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-somatic NS
-Autonomic NS |
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What is the Somatic nervous system?
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-sensory and motor functions
-voluntary control -voluntary movements |
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What is the Autonomic Nervous System?
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-happening and its not under your control
-involuntary control, self-regulates -messages from CNS to glands and muscles Two systems within ANS -sympathetic -parasympathetic |
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What is the sympathetic NS?
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Part of the ANS
-fight or flight response -prepare body for action -mobilize energy resources |
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What is the parasympathetic NS? |
-rest and digest
-conserves energy, calms you down -returns to normal after stressor |
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What are some things that happen to the body when the sympathetic NS kicks in?
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-dilates pupils
-inhibits salivary gland -relaxes bronchi (breathe faster) -accelerates heart beat -inhibits digestive activity -glucose released from liver -relaxes bladder |
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What happens to the body when the parasympathetic nervous system kicks in?
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-constricts pupil
-stimulates salivary gland -constricts bronchi (breathe slower) -slows heartbeat -stimulates digestive activity -stimulates gallbladder -contracts bladder |
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What is the endocrine system?
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-regulates metabolism, growth, tissue function, mood
-works with autonomic nervous system -made up of lots of glands -uses hormones to communicate -creates then released to the blood system to body part (manufactures and secretes hormones) |
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How does ANS work with endocrine system?
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with hypothalamus and pituitary glands
-nerves in hypothalamus control pituitary glands and tells it to suppress it or stimulate it |
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What are hormones?
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chemical substance that the endocrine system communicates with
-each endocrine gland secretes specific hormones directly into the bloodstream, which carries chemicals to various parts of the body |
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What is the pituitary gland and what is its function?
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-"master gland"
-releases hormones that control other endocrine glands -produces growth hormones |
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What is the adrenal gland and what is its function?
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-emergency hormones
-plays a role in fight or flight -activates a sympathetic nervous system as well -sits on top of kidneys -produces hormones that activate the sympathetic system -produces epinephrine and noepinephrine -and cortisol- stress hormone that is produced by adrenal glands |
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What is the Stress reactivity and the endocrine system cycle?
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Hypothalamus-CRH
-stimulates the pituitary gland Pituitary- ACTH -releases the ACTH, which then stimulates the adrenal cortex Adrenal cortex- Cortisol -when stimulated releases cortisol |
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What is the role of cortisol?
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-it's the "stress" hormone and goes to various organs
-released in response to anything you perceive as a stressor -the role of cortisol is fuel for battle (fight or flight)--prepares us for battle |
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What are some biological effects once cortisol is triggered?
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-causes the increases in glucose for energy
-breaks down free fatty acids and protein -increases blood pressure -decrease in immune responses (lymphocytes) -impact continues for a while because its still in blood stream, even though we no longer feel the stress, you still have elevated levels of stress hormones in blood stream |
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What are the negative side effects of cortisol?
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-decreased immune system
-hypotension -muscle tissue damage because its breaking up protein -risk of becoming overweight becauses increases glucose levels and breaking down protein -causes ulcers because it increases gastric acid |
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What is the function of the Pineal gland?
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-melatonin hormone
-regulates sleep and wakefullness |
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What is the function of the Thyroid gland?
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-thyroxine is secreted for regulating metabolism
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What is the function of the thymus gland?
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-produces hormones needed to produce white blood cells
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What is the function of the pancreas?
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-regulates blood sugar levels via insulin and glucagon
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What is the purpose of the digestive system?
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-mechanical and chemical break down of your food so that we are able to absorb it in the blood stream
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What is the function of the enzyme?
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-proteins that catalyze chemical reaction to break down food
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What is the digestive process?
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1)chewing
2)saliva breaks down food 3)goes down esophagus 4)muscles push down food 5)food mixes with acid 6)digestion and absorption of nutrients 7)waste enters colon |
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How does stress affect the digestive system?
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-decreases amount of saliva
-increases hydrochloric stomach acid -decreases stomach mucus which protects lining of stomach -constricts blood vessel in digestive track -can use energy of not digesting to run away from what is a threat -alters intestinal peristalsis (esophagus or stomach), gets diarrhea if too fast, if too slow gets constipation |
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What are some associated digestive issues because of stress?
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-Ulcers- make stomach vulnerable and increases ulcers
-acid reflux- when stomach acid leaks up to esophagus -irritable bowl syndrome- can make it worse |
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What is the cardiovascular system?
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-blood distribution network
-supplies necessary nutrients in cells -removes waste in metabolism and processes |
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What does the heart do?
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-pumps blood to FEED CELLS by delivering O2 and removing CO2
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What is the structure of the vasculature?
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Arteries- carry blood AWAY from the heart
-remove carbon dioxide -(A for AWAY) Veins- brings blood TO the heart |
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What is in the blood content?
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Red cells
white cells platelets plasma |
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What do the red blood cells do?
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Deliver O2 to body's tissues
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What does white blood cells do?
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they are the immune system cells
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What do platelets do?
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blood clotting
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What does plasma do?
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carries blood cells, nutrients, waste products, glucose, vitamines, platelets
-mostly water, 90% |
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What is blood pressure?
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-force that is exerted by blood on the artery walls
two types -systolic -diastolic |
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What is Systolic?
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-pressure in arteries when heart pumps (contraction)
-pressure when heart contracts and blood is pushed through artery |
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What is diastolic?
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pressure in arteries when heart rests
-when it fills with blood |
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What is the difference between systolic and diastolic?
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systolic- contraction
diastolic- rest systolic is the larger number/ diastolic which is the smaller number 120/80 is normal SBP>140 is bad DBP>90 is bad |
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What are factors that affect blood pressure?
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-emotion/stressors
-anger, stress, anxiety->SNS-> cardiac output -physical activity (good stressor) -temperature -high temps lower blood pressure -low temps increase blood pressure -overweight (Risk factor) -age- only when you are also overweight |
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What are hypertension risk factors?
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big risk factor for heart disease and stroke, a rupture can occur in the blood vessel, if blood vessel ruptures in brain it's a stroke
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What is the function of breathing?
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oxygen is needed for chemical reactions in metabolism
-carbon dioxide is made when it joins with carbon atoms from food -breathing helps us gets rid of the waste product |
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Where does the air travel to after the bronchial tubes?
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-it divides into smaller branches called bronchioles
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Where does the bronchioles deliver the air to?
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alveoli which are little air sacs
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Where does air go to after it reaches the alveoli?
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gases are then transferred to and from the bloodstream quickly and efficiently
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How do muscles "know" when it's time to inhale and exhale?
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-blood vessels contain sensors that monitor blood gases
-sends this info to medulla in brain -when CO2 is high, the medulla increases the breathing rate; -when level is low, breathing rate is decreased |
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What are two protective reflexes that protects foreign matter from entering the lungs?
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1) sneezing- response to irritation in nasal passages
2) coughing- response to irritation in lower portions of the system |
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What is the mucociliary escalator?
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-stuff trapped in the mucus lining work with cilia to move stuff up to the mouth
-reaches the back of the throat and is usually hacked out or digested |
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What are antigens?
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anything that triggers the immune response
-bacteria, viruses -foreign invaders |
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What is an underactive immune system?
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more susceptible to infections
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What is an overactive immune system?
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cannot distinguish between self and "nonself"
-allows immune response to attack itself and own tissues -susceptible to autoimmune diseases ex: -arthritis- attack own tissues and joints -multiple sclerosis- attacks own neurons and causes bad communication -diabetes type 1- destroying insulin producing cells in the pancreas -women are more susceptible -attacks harmless substance (allergens) |
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What are the different types of white blood cells?
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Phagocytes
Lymphocytes |
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What are phagocytes?
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type of WBC
-non specific immunity -scavenger that patrols and ingests any antigens -searches for any antigens that look suspicious and will ingest it ex: dust particles, pollutants, cruise around in blood -important for fighting infections and will eat dead cells |
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What are lymphocytes?
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attack specific antigens
-originates in bone marrow Two types of immune processes: cell-mediated immunity antibody-mediated immunity |
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What is the cell immunity process?
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they are already inside
T and B cells |
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What are the different types of T cells
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Killer
Memory Helper Suprressor |
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What are the Killer T cells?
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directly attack and kill foreign antigens
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What are Memory T cells?
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remember specific antigens and patrol
-virus or mumps, will remember antigen and help communicate to other T cells |
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What are Helper T cells?
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send killer cells to attack
-do not directly destroy or kill anything |
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What are suprressor T cells?
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slows immunity processes
-goal is to achieve homeostasis |
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What is stress?
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-transactions that lead to perceiving a discrepancy between the physical or psychological demands of a situation and the resources of one's biological, psychological, or social systems
-"I can't deal with this" |
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What are stressors?
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event in the outside world that knock you out of balance
-a threat you are responding to |
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What is distress?
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harmful and damaging
-debilitating |
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What is Eustress?
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-beneficial, constructive, and adaptive
-able to adapt to it -ex: leaving a bad job for a good job -physical /mental performance can be a positive motivating factor that can improve functioning, helps you when you need to perform -wedding planning |
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What is Optimal stress level?
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-balance of good and bad stress
-it's unique to the individual -when you are the most productive -all need some level of stress to perform optimally |
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What are some biological/ biogenic stressors?
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-possess inherent stimulant quality
-directly cause physiological arousal (stress response) without cognitive appraisal -just happens, not thinking about it ex: caffeine, ginseng, amphetamines -extreme temperatures -physical exercise |
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What is reactivity?
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physiological element in response to stressor or strain
-primary, automatic response to stressors -compared against baseline arousal -influenced by genetics and repeated exposure to stressors ex: if you exercise, it becomes a buffer so that when you are actually stressed, its not as bad |
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What is walter cannon's fight or flight?
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stress response:
-prepares your body to attack or flee from perceived threat -physiological stress response for males and females -body responds quick to danger-->adaptive in short term, but high arousal can be harmful if prolonged |
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What is Shelly Taylor's Tend and Befriend?
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-hypothesized that the adaptive value of fighting or fleeing from a stressor might not be adaptive for women because they are in charge of the young and have more to risk if they are injured, and cant raise offspring
-don't just leave offspring in situation -biobehavioral model to explain female behavioral response to stressors -Females--> to reduce stress and protect themselves and offspring through: ----nurturing behaviors(tend) ----forming alliances (befriend) -this stimulates growth in the offspring |
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What is oxytocin?
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the cuddle hormone
-role in female reproduction -bonding, maternal behavior, affection -induces labor and stimulates contraction muscles -increases relaxation and decreases fear -dampens stress reactivity -helps with empathy and reduces anxiety |
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What is hans selye's General Adaptation Syndrome?
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-able to find changes that occur during fight/flight response
-series of physiological changes when stress is long lasting called GAS -predictable sequence of physiological reactions in response to stressors -all stressors-->same response -stress response is nonspecific |
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What are the three stages to GAS?
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1) Alarm
2)Resistance 3)Exhaustion |
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What happens during the Alarm stage of GAS?
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-fight or flight
-body perceives stressor and mobilizes energy to deal with it -burst of energy to help with it -coritsols are released to increase heart rate and sugar levels |
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What happens during the Resistance stage of GAS?
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-body tries to adapt to the continued stressor by producing physiological changes to regain homeostasis
-body is trying to replenish the hormones that are lost during the initial alarm stage by continuing to release cortisol to help body resist the prolonged stress -still adaptive energy and trying to recover -you may show few outward signs of stress, but can cause health problems -turns down immune system and activity -makes you more vulnerable to illness ex: hypertension, asthma, ulcers, weakened immune system |
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What is the Exhaustion stage in GAS?
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-stress resonse is depleted
-immune system is weakened -fall below baseline level/ resistance to stress |
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What are the critiques on GAS?
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Right:
-prolonged exposure to stressors can lead to illness -basic structure of GAS appears to be valid Wrong: -stress response is not "depleted" -te response is what causes the damage -response is not general: appraisals matter personality matters emotion matters |
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What is stressful then? |
-there is no such thing as an objectively stressful event
-it is subjective, up to the person and how they perceive it -Interpretation/perception is key ex: roller coasters, public speaking, etc. If stress is subjective, when will we feel stressed? -not the stressor that causes the stress, it’s the perception of the stress (Eye of the beholder) |
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What are primary appraisals?
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-evaluate the meaning and significance of the situation
-evaluate the threat of the stressor -does this affect me? -is this event positive, neutral or negative? |
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What are stressful appraisals?
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-harmful or loss (already happened)
-threat (potential harm) -challenge (grow/gain) -if viewed as opportunity to grow or gain experience, then can be excited |
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Wat is secondary appraisal?
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-Yes this affects me and presents either a threat, harm or challenge
-evaluate of available resources 1)physical (health) 2) social (support) 3) psychological (confidence) 4) material (money) am i equipped to handle this? -what are the options |
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How do you respond to stress?
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reactions to the stressor depend on how you appraise the stressors/event
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What are some psychosocial stress reactivity?
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Cognitions(interpretations)
-concentration, memory in positive and negative ways -difficult to study, concentrate -but senses can be heightened Emotions(anxiety,fear) -fear-->anxiety phobias -sadness, helplessness-->depression -anger |
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What are sources of stress?
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-yourself, decisions, ruminatig may create stress
-illness -work -family-divorce, death, having kids, interactions -environment- pollutants -decisions |
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What are the different type of decisions?
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-approach -approach conflict
-avoidance-avoidance conflict -approach-avoidance conflict |
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What is the approach-approach conflict?
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-choose between equally desirable alternatives
ex: pie or cake? |
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What is the avoidance-avoidance conflict?
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-choose between undesirable alternatives
-don't want to study but don't want bad grade |
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What is the approach-avoidance conflict?
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-choice has desirable and undesirable features
-attracted and repelled simultaneously ex: want to do it, but at the same time you want to avoid it too -want to get in better shape, but have to change diet and physical activity, but like end result |
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How do you measure stress physiologically? What is the pros and cons?
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Good:
-direct -objective (physiological measurements like measuring blood pressure) -reliable -easily quantified Bad: -expensive -may be stressful for some people -Affected by: -gender -body weight -physical activity -Health behaviors -drinking coffee -smoking -sleeping patterns |
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What is the scale used for evaluating stress?
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-social readjustment rating scale
-measures stress by ranking 43 life events from most to least stressful and assigning a point value to each -degree of stress connected to health problems ex: last 12 months how many times have you experienced: -death of spouse -divorce -marriage -personal injury or illness -getting fired at work -pregnancy |
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What are the criticisms of social readjustment rating scale?
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-subjective component
-hard to interpret |
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What are uplifts?
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positive experiences may neutralize effects of hassles
ex: supportive boyfriend can counter stressful event but what is an uplift for one may not be for everyone else ex: running vs. watching tv |
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What are the pros and cons for measuring stress with life events/daily hassles?
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Pros:
-wide range of stressful events -values determined by a large sample of people -correlates with health status and illness incidence(weakly) Cons: -vague items -ex: change in responsibilities at work might not bother someone, but might for others -personal meaning of events -same event may be desirable to you and undesirable to me |
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What is antibody mediated immunity?
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directly attack antigens before they invade cells
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What are B cells?
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produce antibodies against antigens
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What are antibodies?
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aka immunoglobulins
-they attach to surface of antigens -each antibody will attack only a single kind of antigen ex: antibody for pneumonia bacteria, antibody for flu virus |
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What are the roles of the antibodies?
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-slow down the antigens to be destroyed
-recruit other cells to attack and destroy the antigens -form memory B cells for future identification and attack on specific invader antigens |
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What are the steps for cell-mediated immunity?
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1) antigens enter bloodstream
2) Phagocyte engulf antigen and recruits helper Tcells 3) Helper cells multiply rapidly and notify killer Tcells 4) Killer T cells directly attack and destroy antigen |
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What are the steps for antibody mediated immunity?
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1) Antigen invades cell
2) B-cell recognizes specific antigen, engulfs it, and signals for help 3) Helper T cell attaches to B cell and releases interleukins that stimulate B-cell to become a plasma cell (antibody factory) 4)Plasma cell pumps out identical antibodies to hunt down invading antigens |
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What is social support?
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PERCEIVED comfort, caring or help received from others
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What are the four types of social support?
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Emotional
-comfort, reassurance belonging ex: encouragement, building up someone's self value, making them feel special, more social support Tangible support -tangible, direct assistance ex: loaning money, sharing notes with classmate, giving them a ride, going shopping for a roommate Informational Support: -giving advice, instructions, feedback, information -helpful for someone to cope ex:giving directions, teaching them to rollerblade, listening and offering advice, educating someone Companionship support -spending time with person -membership, shared interest and activites -network support |
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Which type of support seems to be most protective?
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Emotional support tends to buffer the effects of stress the most
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What is the single best action you could take now to increase your chances of living to a ripe old age?
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-married people fare better than non-married people on nearly every measure of health
-only when you’re happily married |
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All about gender differences: |
Men
Married men= physically & mentally are healthier Unmarried women= healthier Divorced= poorest physical health But, women receive more support from each other -seek social support more with friends -emotional support -will discuss it if something is wrong, will go out |
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What are some socialcultural differences in support?
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Caucasians broadest social networks
Minority group extended family -social support is from extended family |
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What are the positive effects of social support on stress?
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-presence of support (friend or pet)
-find that people will show decreased stress reactivity -less likely to die -reduced illness likelihood -speeds recovery |
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How does Social support affect health: proposed mechanisms
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Buffering hypothesis
-reduce or eliminate negative impact of stress -effective for big stressors -alters appraisals and responses -if you feel something bad happens and if you have big support, then it will alter how you appraise the situation, better at handling, and response to it ii. Direct effects hypothesis -benefits health independent of stressors -promotes positive outlooks -encourage healthy behaviors -overal feelings of being supported have positive outlooks on life -encourage you to engage in healthier behaviors -less likely to have bad behaviors if you feel you are cared for |
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When will social support may not reduce stress
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-Key is PERCIEVED support
-poor quality relationships -when they are producing more stress than support -when there is TOO much social support -can take up a lot of time -increased responsibilities that you have to deal with -poor fit with your needs -women tend to vent or complain, men want to fix or problem solve -Bad influences -people who want to ruin our diets, study in the morning -Enabling/overprotective -enabling: allowed to continue with negative behavior -overprotective: -parents and children -not encouraging growth and feeling -when environment is not supporting that |
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What is sense of control?
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-make decisions and take effective action
-increase personal control= -less perceived strain -increase in healthy habits -decrease in illness -increase in adjustment to illness |
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What is Locus of control?
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-percieved amount of control you believe you have over events that affect you
i. Internal LOC -you have control over the events, my abilities and I’m responsible for these events that occur ii. External LOC -this just happened to me, theres nothing that I can do about it, it’s beyond my control -it’s fate or luck -willing to blame others and take less responsibility for it |
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What is self efficacy?
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belief that you can succeed
-can you do it? Can you succeed? -has to do with personal control, If you believe you can quit smoking, then it is associated with the likelihood of you quitting -if there is a doubt, then you’re setting yourself up for failure |
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What is learned helplessness? |
-repeated failure hopeless, depressed
-people who experience a lot of stress levels over time, and lack feeling of control, this causes less helplessness -they feel trapped, cant avoid the obstacles -they stop trying to achieve goals so they just give up |
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What are the different types of attributions?
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i. Internal-external
Internal: “this is all my fault” -personal inability External: “it couldn’t be avoided” -beyond your control -if have internal, blame yourself more. -if external, it’s out of my control, couldn’t avoid it, out of my power ii. Stable-unstable Stable: “I’m never going to do well in school” -long lasting Unstable: “ I messed up on this quiz but there will be more” -temporary iii. Global-specific Specific: “oops! That was some bad driving” Global: “I’m bad at everything” -ex: one time I messed up, I was drinking -global, I cant do this I can never do this, I have no willpower, I’m not good at it, not successful |
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Attributions and bad events
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-internal, global, stable risk for helplessness, depression
-attribute it to yourself, it happened because its me, always be this way Good events: -external, specific, unstable= pessimistic -you did well on the quiz, because the quiz was easy, not because you studied |
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What are pessimism views like
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Pessimistic views:
-have poorer health habits -less proactive, don’t care, don’t take care of self, nothing good lasts, don’t have great sense of control -poor adjustment to illness -low self-efficacy |
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What is Optimistic Views like?
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good things are likely to happen
-less stress -better health habits -faster recovery rates for illness |
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What is Resilience view like?
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-self-esteem
-personal control -optimism -tend to appraise negative to be less stressful than other people -better at bounce back from negative events -more meaning in difficult times -easy going, have an easy temperament -genetic component to that -tend to compensate for their stressful events by building special skill for coping mechanism -builds character |
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What is Hardiness and the 3 C's?
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-Control- can influence your life
-Commitment-how involved in life are you -Challenge-use stress as a challenge, growth, instead of a threat -people who are high on all of these tend to get sick less often, when they do get sick not as bad |
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What is Type A behavior pattern like?
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-time urgency
-hostile, easily angered -high competiveness -with selves and high expectations of other people as well ex: have high risk of coronary heart disease |
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Which is most associated with harmful health effects in Type A? |
-anger and hostility
-free floating hostility -in reaction to everything, particularly interpersonal situations and relationships -irritability and aggressiveness -highly reactive to stress, and in frequent state of arousal -triggering physiological affects |
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What is Type B behavior pattern like?
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-opposite of type A
-relaxed, easy going -no time urgency or hostility -less likely to get coronary heart disease |
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What is Type D behavior pattern like?
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-chronic emotional distress
-suppress negative emotions -lot of worry, anxiety -negative affect -but they are not expressing it at all -may make body have an active immune system -inflammatory response and blood platelets, causes a build up in blood vessels |
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What is Diathesis stress model? AKA stress vulnerability model?
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-interaction between genetic predisposition (diathesis) and exposure to stress (environment)
-if already predispose ex: alcoholism, genetic disorder, then not going to take a lot of stressors to trigger it Under chronic stress more likely to catch colds: Cohen’s Cold studies -Assess stress levels -expose people to cold virus -quarantine them -check systems -47% with high stress got colds -27% with low stress got colds |
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What is Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
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-relationships among psychosocial processes and the nervous, endocrine, and immune system
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What is the feedback loop in PNI?
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-Nervous and endocrine sends chemicals through neurotransmitters and hormones to immune functioning
Immune system sends back ACTH to the brain |
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What factors influence the immune system?
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i. Emotions- helplessness, pessimism, gratitude, appraisals
ii. Social Support- influences immune system -self-support and disclosure- when you describe your feelings about an event iii. Factors influencing immune system -taste aversion CS=sweet water (Saccarin) UCR= nausea by injected drugs-UCS Give rats sugar water and no drug -no nausea induced -some rats died…why? -because the sugar water by itself suppressed the immunity -immune system was being suppressed -just the association with it causes them to lower immune functioning iv: Lifestyle -behaviors influence on immune function |
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What are some digestive system disorders related to stress
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Ulcers
-produced by a combination of gastric juices eroding the lining of the stomach and duodenum that has been weakened by bacterial affection Stress can cause flare ups for: -Inflammatory Bowl disease -irritable bowl syndrome -produces abdominal pain, diarrhea, and constipation |
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What are other physical difficulties caused by stress?
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Rheumatoid arthritis- produces inflammation and stiffness of the small joints, such as in the hands
-stress can be involved in triggering or aggravating episodes -Dysmenorrhea- painful menstruation which may be accompanied by nausea, headache, and dizziness Skin disorders: Hives Eczema Psoriasis -skin develops rashes or becomes dry and flakes or cracks |
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What is Coping? What are the types of coping?
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process by which people try to manage the perceived discrepancy between the demands and resources they appraise in a stressful situation
-alters their perception of a discrepancy, tolerate or accept the harm or threat, or escape, or avoid the situation 1)emotion focused 2) problem focused 3) group differences |
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What is emotion focused coping?
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-controlling the emotional response to the stressful situation
-can regulate through behavioral and cognitive approaches Behavioral: ex: using drugs and alcohol, seeking emotional social support from friends or relatives, or engaging in activities such as sports or watching tv -distracts attention from the problem Cogntive: how people think about the stressful situation -redefine the situation, put a good face on, such as noting that things could be worse, making comparisons with individuals who are less well off, or seeing something good growing out of the problem Defense mechanisms: Denial: denying that it exists because it’s too painful to face Avoidance: only for short run , avoid situation -People use emotion-focused when they believe they can do little to change the stressful situation -emotion-focused can sometime interfere with getting medical treatment or involve unhealthful behaviors (drugs alcohol) to reduce tensions |
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What is Problem-focused?
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-aimed at reducing the demands of the stressful situation or expanding the resources to deal with it
Ex: quitting stressful job, negotiating extension, devising a new schedule for studying, choosing a different career to pursue -use it when they believe their resources or the demands of the situation are changeable |
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What are group differences in coping?
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Wives: use more emotion focused approaches than husbands
Higher income and education levels: greater use of problem focused coping Death in family: less problem focused than illness or economic difficulties |
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What are behavioral and cognitive methods for stress management?
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Relaxation:
Progressive Muscle Relaxation: focus their attention on specific muscle groups while alternating tightening and relaxing these muscles Systematic Desensitation: useful method for reducing fear and anxiety -uses counterconditiong- calm response graudaually replaces the fear response Stimulous Hierarchy: graded sequence of approximations to the conditioned stimulus, the feared situation Imaginal situations: thinking about calling for ex: dentist Symbolic contacts: showing pictures, films or models of the feared situation -sequences are from least to most fearful Biofeedback -electromechanical device monitors the status of a person’s physiological processes such as heart rate or muscle tension, and reports that info back to individual -treats stress-related health problems Modeling -observer or socially learning people |
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What are some cognitive processes to help with stress management?
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-Cognitive restructing: process by which stress-provoking thoughts or beliefs are replaced with more constructive or realistic ones that reduce the person’s appraisal of threat or harm
Two types of beliefs: Can’t-stand-it is- “ I can’t stand not doing well on a test Musterbating- “people must like me or I’m worthless Arbitrary inference: drawing a specific conclusion from insufficient, ambiguous or contrary evidence -ex: husband might interpret wife’s bad mood as meaning she is unhappy with something he did when she is actually preoccupied with another matter Magnification: greatly exaggerating the meaning or impact of an event -ex: recently retired person diagnosed with arthritis might describe it as a catastrophe Use: Cognative Therapy: to change maladaptive thought patterns -helps clients understand that they are not responsible for all of the problems they encounter, negative experiences are usually not catastrophes, and that hteir maladaptive beliefs are not logically valid -Hypothesis testing: person treat an erroneous belief as a hypothesis and test it by looking for evidence for and against it in his or her everyday life -Problem solving training- learns a strategy for identifying, discovering, or inventing effective or adaptive ways to address problems in everyday life -watch for problems that can arise, define a problem clearly and concretely, generate a variety of possible solutions, and decide on the best course of action -this reduces anxiety and other negative emotions -stress-innoculation training: uses a variety of methods that are designed to teach people skills fo alleviating stress 1)learns about the nature of stress and how people react to it 2) acquires behavioral and cognitive skills, such as relaxation and seeking social support 3) practices coping skills with actual or imagined stressors |
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What is coronary heart disease?
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-CHD #1 Killer (26% of all deaths)
-stress increase platelets, clotting, cholesterol -plaque in arteries -narrows artery walls, get heart attack, or stroke |
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What is hypertension? |
-stress indirect cause
-hypertension CHD, stroke -chronically high blood pressure -obesity -diet (high sodium, fat, cholesterol) -smoking, alcohol -sedentary lifestyle -family history |
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What is metabolic syndrome?
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-overweight
-hypertension -high cholesterol -hyperglycemia -central obesity -high blood pressure -high triglycerides -low HDL-cholesterol -insulin resistance |
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What is asthma?
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-respiratory inflammation
-more common in children, but physiologically, inflammation to a trigger -environment and genetic risk factor -hyposensitive airwaves -environmentally: exposure to highly allergic substances like dust and poor air quality, may cause over active immune system -can be triggered by respiratory infections (cold can be prolonged) -physiological arousal (hard exercise) -psychological arousal (emotional arousal) -early family conflict (high family stress in first two years in life, may increase their chances of getting asthma if they are already predisposed to it) -adult asthma maybe due to allergies (chemicals, dander, food preservatives) -hygiene—too clean, not exposed to the bad stuff, immune system doesn’t get a chance to build up against it -obesity is correlated with asthma, may develop it -their lungs might be under expanded, take smaller breaths, low levels of inflammation in tissues |
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What are tension headaches?
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CNS dysfunction + chronic head/neck muscle contraction
-associated most with stress leads to muscle tension, poor posture or working in awkward positions in long periods of time, jaw tension, hunger, sleep, caffeine withdrawal -increase with age |
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What are migraines? How is that related to stress?
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- dilated blood vessels + brainstem dysfunction
-stress can be an indirect trigger, begin and end with an aura, warning -affects psych and sensory processes like nausea, etc -tend to start in childhood, decline with age -mostly affect women—affected with hormonal changes |
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What is TMJ? How is it aggravated more by stress?
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Stress jaw clenching/teeth grinding
-inflammation of joint that connects mandible to skull -symptoms are painful, popping or clicking in ears, tender in ears -stress can be an indirect cause, anxiety and stress -associated with headaches |
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How can cancer be brought on by stress?
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-unrestrained growth in cells invade and destroy
-start to divide beyond normal limits, and invade and destroy nearby tissue, where you see tumors in tissue -when tumor grows, it breaks off and spreads to different parts of body through the lymph symptoms -caused by genetic abnormality, risk factor 30% genetic, 70% environment (carcinogens) Immunosurveillance: Natural Killer cells -our immune system is constantly preventing cancer -inhibits carcinogensis, maintains cellular homeostasis -cancer cells always spontaneously developing in body, and its supposed to destroy them before tumor can develop -natural killer cells do that job -if they are suppressed or inactive they will not kill the tumor cells -stress weakens immune system, and immune system plays part in fighting off cancer cells -higher levels of stress, increases relapse, difficult recovery |
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How does stress affect reproduction?
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-decreases libido
-male impotence -hormones interfere with ovulation -miscarriage, pre-term delivery |
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How does stress affect sports injuries?
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-muscle tension
-stress increases proinflammatory cytokines -attract immune cells to injury to start healing process -but high levels of this can make injury worse by inflaming it |
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What is coping?
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-how people manage the perceived discrepancy between demands and resources
-not a single event but an ongoing interaction -does not necessarily lead to a solution -series of appraisals and reappraisals |
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What is emotion-focused coping?
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-regulate emotional response to event
-situation appears unchangeable -use short-term strategy -ex: pass away of loved one—cant do anything about it -lack of problem focused coping |
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What are cognitive and behavioral things we do for emotional coping?
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cognative:
-positive reappraisal -denial - wishful thinking -seeking meaning -humor Behavioral: -venting -activity distractions -eating -alcohol/drugs -avoidance |
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What is problem focused coping?
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-take direct action to modify or minimize threat
-believe demands or resources are changeable |
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What has coping research found about what is helpful and unhelpful?
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What’s important?
-positive emotions -finding benefits or meaning -emotional expression what’s unhelpful? -rumination (emotional processing) -expressing emotions seem to be healthier |
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What are the 5 things to prevent stress?
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Control-enhance personal control, increase self efficacy
Organize- organize world (time management), decrease in frustration, not wasting time -set goals -prioritize to do lists -set up schedule for each day Prepare- increases your sense of control if your more prepared Exercise- report less tension, anxiety, depression, lower stress reactivity, better physical health and stronger immune system Social support-increase social network |
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What are some behavioral and cognitive methods to reduce stress?
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Relaxation
-progressive muscle relaxation -tighten specific type of muscles, and release that and pay attention to sensation when you relax -less cardiovascular reactivity to stress -less pain Systematic desensitaization -classical conditioning -confront hierarchy of fears -used with anxiety, phobias, public speaking Biofeedback -monitor stress reactivity (blood rate, heart pressure, muscle tension, temperature) -provides immediate feedback -allows individual to get voluntary control to go over physiological responses -reduce muscle tension in neck -increasing body temperature Modeling -social learning, observation -anxiety in a fear response to watching someone freak out -can unlearn it as well |
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What is cognitive restructuring?
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-how you interpret it (appraisal)
-stress provoking thoughts –replace it with more realistic thoughts and appraisals -irrational beliefs very black and white, very extreme -magnification of event—end of the world -making negative assumptions is an irrational belief -challenge irrational beliefs -is it really true? -if you have negative thought you question yourself |
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In college students, what is the typical sleep pattern?
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-college students:
85% report daily stress 20% sleep disorders -sleep is not a priority -most sleep deprived age group -longer to fall asleep (about 30 minutes), more interrupted sleep -later bedtimes and wake times on weekends -disrupts your cycadian rhythm—24 hour day/night cylcle. -better functioning if you have a good cycadian rhythm Recommended sleep is average 8 hours (7-9) College students- avg 6 hours |
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What is the restorative theory in sleep?
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-sleep repairs wear and tear on the body and brain from being awake
-restores energy, consolidates memory -linked to immune system REM sleep= where you dream—should have atleast 5 cycles -periods of REM sleep will decrease if you have been sleep deprived -increase the rate of cell division, protein synthesis, and releases growth hormones, testosterone, and constructive hormones—used for tissue repeair -time where muscles are being repaired -sleep associated with levels of proteins associated by immune system -regulates inflammation and risk for illness and injury |
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What are the effects of sleep deprivation?
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-decrease in cognitive performance
-need time to digest info to study in the first place -increase in negative mood and irritability -decrease in reaction time and attention—like alcohol consumption while driving -increase risk of overweight and obese -craves more calories than what their body needs -fewer than 6 hours a night have trouble metabolizing sugar properly -decrease in immune system -higher C reactive proteins, an inflammatory indicator that is linked to heart disease and other autoimmune diseases -helps fight off infection and disease -increase in stress response—higher cortisol levels -decrease in appearance—affects skin, muscles, blood, brain, regeneration |
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How to improve sleep?
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-follow a routine go to bed and wake up everyday
-reinforce wake sleep cycle -fall asleep more easily -get away from the electronics—tv computer video games -Exercise -your bed is only for sleeping -white noise or ear plugs -don’t go to bed hungry -avoid stimulants -avoid sleep aids |
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What percentage of American adults are overweight or obese?
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67% Adults
44% children and adolescents Colorado least obese Mississippi most obese |
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What are some alternative methods used to cope with and manage stress?
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-Massage
-stimulates circulation -flush waste from muscles -while carrying nutrients for it -reduces tension, stress, headaches, muscle pain, arthritis, depression, anxiety -Meditation -improve both physical and mental health -decreasing stress response and at the same time, increasing the relaxation response -detach yourself from negative appraisals -observe thoughts -alter alpha brainwaves physical benefits: -decrease in oxygen consumption, decrease blood pressure, increase in immune functioning -Hypnosis -altered state of consciousness -effects are similar to relaxation and to meditation -fully conscious, know what’s going on around you -things are more suggestible -tune out stimuli in environment |
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What are the group differences for emotion focused coping?
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-women use more emotion focused coping except when they have similar occupations and education, then no gender differences (Sexrole, stereotyping)
-elderly adults-more emotion focused coping because they don’t feel they have the resources or same ability -ethic minorities- more emotion focused -lower income and education- more emotion |
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What are some specific aspects in jobs that can increase worker's stress?
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-demands of the task
-if they work for long periods of time because they feel required to do so -need money or think boss is unhappy -evaluation of an employee's job performance -responsibility for other people's lives ex: medical personnel, firefighters, police |
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What is Allostatic load and what leads to it?
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wear and tear on the body and impairs its ability to adapt to future stressors
-caused by body having to adapt repeatedly to intense stressors such as fluctuations in hormone levels, blood pressure, and immune function |
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What are the three psychosocial processes that Selye's nonspecific" view of stress do not take into account?
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1)Emotional response
-some stressors have stronger emotional response than others -some are sudden and some are gradual -some lead to increase in epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol, but other stressors increased only two of these hormones 2)Effort -persons' interest, striving and determination -distress involves anxiety, uncertainty, boredom and dissatisfaction 3) cognitive appraisal -plays a role in people's physiological reaction to stressors -not everything is threatening |
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What are the ranges of BMI?
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BMI= weight/ height in x height x 703
<18.5= underweight 18.5-24.9- healthy >25 overweight >30 obese |
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What are the percentages of American adults that are overweight or obese?
children? |
67% Adults
44% children and adolescents |
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What is well behavior?
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any activity people undertake to maintain or imporve current good health and avoid illness
ex: exercising, eating healthy diets, having regular dental checkups, and getting vaccinations against diseases |
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What is symptom based behavior?
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-any activity people who are ill undertake to determine the problem and find a remedy
ex: complaining about symptoms, seeking advice |
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What is sick-role behavior?
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-any activity people undertake to get well after deciding they are ill and what the illness is
ex: getting prescriptions, staying home from school or work, someone else do your chores |
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What are the three conclusions research has presented about people's health habits?
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1) although people's health habits are fairly stable, they often change over time
2) particular health behaviors are not strongly tied to each other -if we know a person practices one specific health habit, we cannot accurately predict that he or she practices another specific habit 3) health behaviors do not seem to be governed in each person by a single set of attitudes or response tendencies |
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What is primary prevention? Examples?
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-consists of actions taken to avoid disease or injury
ex: using seat belts -diets, exercise, tooth brushing and flossing |
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What is secondary prevention? Examples?
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-actions are taken to identify and treat an illness early with the aim of stopping or reversing the problem
ex: ulcers -physical examination -mammograms -colonoscopy |
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What is tertiary prevention? Examples?
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action to contain or retard this damage, prevent disability or recurrence and rehabilitate the patient
ex: severe arthritis -cancer |
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What are the four patterns involved in people using different coping methods?
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1)Role of positive emotions
-sustains the coping process 2)finding benefits or meaning -search for benefits or meaning in the experience, using beliefs, values and goals to give it a positive significance 3)Engaging in emotional approach -expressing their feelings --expression --rumination --intrusive thoughts |
