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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Norman Triplett
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-Published first study of social psych (1898)
-studied effect of competition on performance -found people perform better on familiar tasks when in presence of others rather than when alone |
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William McDougall (psychologist) and E.H. Ross (sociologist)
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-each independently published the first textbooks on social psychology in 1908
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Verplank
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-1950s
-work suggests that social approval influences behavior -showed that the course of a conversation changes drastically based on approval (feedback) from others |
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reinforcement theory
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-theory that behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards
-established by Verplank, Pavlov, Thorndike, Hull, and Skinner |
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Albert Bandura
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-main figure in social learning theory
-proposed that behavior is learned through imitation |
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Role theory
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Bindle, 1979
-perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill -much of their observable behavior can be attributed to adopting those roles |
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attitudes
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-components of attitudes=cognitions or beliefs, feelings, and behavioral predisposition
-typically expressed in opinion statements |
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consistency theories
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-hold that people prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based on this preference
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Fritz Heider's balance theory
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concerned with the way three elements are related:
-P (person) -O (other person) -X (thing, idea or other person) -Balance exists when all three interact harmoniously -When not in balance, stress occurs, and tendency to alleviate stress by achieving new balance (P and/or O changing attitude) -In general, balance exists in triad if there are 1 or 3 positives |
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Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory
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cognitive dissonance=conflict you feel when your attitudes are not in sync with your behaviors
-engaging in behavior that conflicts with an attitude may result in changing one's attitude so it is consistent with the behavior |
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free-choice dissonance
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-occurs in a situation where a person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives
-e.g. Scott is dating Donna and Betty, and chooses to go out exclusively with Donna. After he breaks up with Betty, dissonance occurs because his cognitive liking for Donna is at odds with his behavioral choice not to go out with her anymore. |
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post-choice dissonance
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dissonance that occurs after a behavioral choice, e.g. Scott breaking up with Donna
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spreading of alternatives
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relative worth of two alternatives is spread apart in order to reduce dissonance
-e.g. Scott tells himself Betty is much better than Donna, or that Donna is much worse than Betty, in order to reduce his dissonance over breaking up with Donna and going out exclusively with Betty |
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forced-choice dissonance
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-when an individual is forced into complying with a behavior that is at odds with their attitudes/beliefs
-eg. Child is told cannot have ice cream unless eats his spinach, but child does not like spinach |
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minimal justification effect
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when external justification for changing behavior is minimal, there is a tendency to reduce dissonance by changing internal cognitions
-eg Festinger and Carlsmith experiment (1959), subjects given $1 or $20 to tell people that a boring task that the subjects performed as an experiment was actually interesting -subjects who only got $1 had less external justification of their behavior than those who got $20, so were more likely to change their attitudes about their enjoyment of the task to reduce dissonance -result=task rated as more enjoyable by $1 group than $20 group |
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Daryl Bem's self-perception theory
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-when your attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behavior and attribute an attitude to yourself
-crux of theory is that people infer what their attitudes are based on from observation of their own behavior e.g. man is unsure whether or not he likes brown bread, notes that he eats brown bread all the time, and attributes to himself that he must therefore like brown bread |
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key difference between Bem's self-perception theory and Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory
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-Bem does not hypothesize a state of discomfort/dissonance, so therefore person's initial attitude is irrelevant and there is no cognitive dissonance produced by behavior
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overjustification effect
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-implication of Bem's self-perception theory
-if you reward someone for doing something they already enjoy, they may end up liking this task less, because they associate the task with the reward rather than their initial enjoyment -relate behavior to external, rather than internal, causes |
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Carl Hovland's model of attitude change
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-attitude change=process of communicating a message with the intent of persuading someone
-three parts: communicator, communication, situation |
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Carl Hovland's model of attitude change, the communicator
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-aka the source
-someone who has taken a position on an issue and is trying to persuade someone else to adopt his/her position -the more credible the source is perceived to be, the greater the persuasive impact -credibility depends on how trustworthy the source is deemed to be -sources can increase credibility by arguing against their own self-interest |
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Carl Hovland's model of attitude change, the communication
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-presentation of argument
-designed with the intent to persuade others |
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Carl Hovland's model of attitude change, the situation
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-surroundings in which the communication takes place
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the sleeper effect
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over time, the persuasive impact of a high credibility source decreases while the persuasive impact of a low credibility source increases
-e.g. Russian newspaper Pravda vs. J Robert Oppenheimer as author of atomic submarine article |
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two-sided messages
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messages that contain arguments for and against a position
-often used for persuasion because seem like balanced communication |
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Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
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model that suggests there are two routes to persuasion: central route and peripheral route
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Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, central route of persuasion
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-if issue is very important to you, use this route
-follow persuader's argument closely and mentally evaluate persuader's arguments by generating your own counterarguments -in this route, strong arguments persuade better than weak messages |
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Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, peripheral route of persuasion
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when you don't care very much about the issue, this route applies
-either will not or cannot pay attention to persuader's message -strength of persuader's argument really doesn't matter -surroundings in which argument is being presented are what matters |
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William McGuire's analogy of inoculation
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McGuire theorized that the inoculation process in the body, where a weakened form of a pathogen is injected into the body so that the body will ultimately develop resistance, is similar to the mental process people can go through to be inoculated against persuasive communications
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cultural truisms
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beliefs that are seldom questioned, and therefore vulnerable to attack because there is less practice defending against it
-analogous to person who has never been inoculated -e.g. it is a good idea to brush your teeth after meals |
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refuted counterarguments
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-arguments that are presented against cultural truisms and then refuted, in order to motivate people to practice defending their beliefs
-analogous to weakened pathogen being injected |
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belief perseverance
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people will hold on to beliefs even after they have been proven to be false
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Festinger's social comparison theory
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people are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relation to other people
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three principles of Festinger's social comparison theory
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1. people prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means, but when this is not possible, people evaluate their opinions/abilities in relation to those of other people
2. the less the similarity between the opinions and abilities of two people, the less someone tends to evaluate themselves based on the other person 3. when there is a discrepancy between the opinions/abilities of a person and a group of people, there is a tendency to shift one's position so as to fit in with the group (need for self-evaluation becomes linked with need to affiliate) |
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Stanley Schachter's research on anxiety and affiliation
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greater anxiety leads to a greater desire to affiliate, but anxious people prefer to affiliate with other anxious people
-perceived factor of similarity plays a role in affiliation |
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reciprocity hypothesis
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we tend to like people who we perceive as liking us, and we tend to dislike people who we perceive as disliking us
-other person's evaluation of us is taken into account when choosing whether or not to affiliate |
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Aronson and Linder's gain-loss principle
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an evaluation that changes will have a greater impact than an evaluation that remains constant
-we will like someone more whose liking for us has increased rather than someone who always liked us -we will dislike someone more whose dislike for us has increased rather than someone who has always disliked us |
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social exchange theory
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assumes a person weighs the awards and costs of interacting with someone
-the more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction -people attempt to minimize costs and maximize rewards |
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equity theory
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we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the person we are choosing whether or not to affiliate with
-prefer that our ratio of costs and rewards be equal to the other person's -imbalance leads to instability due to perceived inequity |
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need complementarity
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people choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs
-"opposites attract" |
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attractiveness stereotype
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tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people
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spatial proximity
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people generally develop a greater liking the closer in proximity they are to someone else
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mere exposure hypothesis
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repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to an enhanced liking for it
-key figure=Robert Zajonc |
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altruism
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form of helping behavior where person's intent is to help someone else at some cost to his or herself
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frustration-aggression hypothesis
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when people are frustrated, they act aggressively
-research has found correlation between strength of frustration and level of aggression observed |
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Bandura's social learning theory
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aggressiveness is learned through modeling or reinforcement
-Bobo doll study |
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autokinetic effect
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illusory movement of a point of light in an otherwise completely dark room
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Muzafer Sherif study on conformity
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-evaluated the concept of norm formation
-had subs, when alone, estimate movement of point of light in dark room - then brought group of subs together and had them estimate movement of point of light -solitary subs' estimates changed so that group agreed on amount of movement -individuals conformed to group, judgments conformed to group norm |
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Solomon Asch's conformity study
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-comparing length of lines
-subs yielded to group of confederates' pressure and chose incorrect line |
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conformity
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yielding to group pressure
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foot-in-the-door effect
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compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request
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door-in the-face-effect
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people who refuse large initial request are more likely to agree to smaller later request
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Clark and Clark doll preference study (1947)
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study of ethnic self-concept among white and black children
-showed each child black and white dolls and asked questions about how child felt about dolls -majority of both white and black children preferred white doll -showed negative effects of racism and minority status on self-concept of black children |
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salience and personal identity
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-identities organized according to hierarchy of salience, or that which holds the most importance in a particular situation
-the more salient the identity, the more we conform to role expectations of that identity |
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primacy effect
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occasions in which first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
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recency effect
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occasions in which most recent information about an individual is most important in forming our impressions
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attribution theory
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focuses on tendency of individuals to infer the causes of others' behavior
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Fritz Heider
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one of the founding fathers of attribution theory, divided causes into dispositional and situational
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halo effect
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tendency to let a general impression of a person color a specific evaluation about that same person
eg. I like Jill (general), Jill is trustworthy (specific) |
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M.J. Lerner
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studied tendency of individuals to believe in a just world where good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
-strong belief in a just world increases likelihood of blaming the victim, because in just world, can be no innocent victims |
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Theodore Newcomb
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found that each year of a student's college career at Bennington was marked by an increase in liberalism
-shows influence of group norms -follow up 20 yrs later indicated that most of those who left the school as liberals remained liberals and those who left as conservatives remained conservative -liberals who married conservatives frequently returned to conservativism |
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Edward Hall
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suggests that there are cultural norms that govern how far we stand apart from each other
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proxemics
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how individuals space themselves in relation to others
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Zajonc's drive theory (social facilitation)
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presence of an audience increases arousal and thus enhances the emission of dominant behaviors
-dominant behavior is behavior most likely given skill level at time of use -if dominant behavior subjectively perceived as easy by person performing task, presence of audience improves performance -opposite true if behavior subjectively perceived as difficult |
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social loafing
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tendency for people to put forth less effort on a task if part of a group rather than if acting individually
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Stanford Prison Experiment
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-headed by Philip Zimbardo
-prisoners showed evidence of deindividuation -loss of self-awareness and personal identity -at beginning of experiment, no differences between those assigned to be guards and prisoners -guards became more authoritarian as study went on -prisoners reacted with different types of coping styles -terminated after six days instead of two weeks |
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groupthink
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tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus, and in doing so, not consider discordant information
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risky shift
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tendency for decisions taken by a group after discussion to display more experimentation, be less conservative and be more risky than those made by individuals acting alone prior to any discussion
-the average of the riskiness of individual choices=riskiness of group BEFORE discussion |
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value hypothesis
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risky shift occurs in situations where risky behavior culturally valued
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James Stoner 1968 experiment (risky shift)
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gave couples dilemmas to examine risky shift in controversial situations, e.g. terminating a pregnancy or allowing it to come to term when pregnancy could endanger mother's life
-group decisions shifted toward caution rather than risk -context of decision can determine direction of the shift |
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group polarization
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tendency for discussion to enhance a group's original tendency towards riskiness or caution
-started out risky, discussion tends to increase riskiness -started out cautious, discussion tends to increase caution |
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Kurt Lewin (leadership styles)
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studied effects of different types of leadership styles
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Lewin's three leadership styles
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autocratic, laissez-faire, democratic
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autocratic
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more hostile, more aggressive, more dependent on leader
-quantity of work greater than laissez-faire or democratic |
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laissez-faire
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less efficient, less organized, less satisfying
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democratic
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more satisfying, more cohesive
-motivation stronger than autocratic or laissez-faire |
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prisoner's dilemma
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used to study cooperation and competition
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Robber's Cave experiment
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Robber's Cave, OK
-Muzafer Sherif -created hostilities between two groups of boys at a camp and then reduced them through cooperation -found group effort on superordinate goals dramatically improved intergroup relations between the boys |
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superordinate goals
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goals best obtained through intergroup cooperation
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