Gre Cognitive Psychology

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Herman ebbinghouse

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Studied himself with nonsense syllables. Method of savings, forgetting curve

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Method of savings

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Memorize list multiple times, compare memorization time rememorization time

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Forgetting curve

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Ebbinghouse: without practice, will forget rapidly then plateau

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Research methods in cognition

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Reaction time , eye movements (reading and language comprehension), brain imaging (associate processes with part if brain)

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3 processes of memory

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Encoding- putting in memory

storage- retaining info over time

Retrieval- recovery of stored info

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2 common methods of retrieval

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Recall- independently produce info

Recognition- realize stimulus has been seen (ex. Multiple choice)

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generation- recognition model

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recall tapes same basic process of accessing info as recognition; recognition requires an additional step

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recency effect

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words at the end of a list remembered best

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primacy effect

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words at beginning of list remembered well (not as well as recency effect)

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clustering

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tendency to recall words in groups of related words

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Stage Theory of Memory

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there are several different memory systems, each with a different function

sensory memory, short-term, long-term (in that order)

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Sensory memory (and types)

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contains fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli.

the two types: visual/ iconic, auditory/ echoic

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George Sperling

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used Partial-report procedure (3x3 grid, recall one of the three lines on demand) to determine that sensory memory can hold 9 items

the previous belief, due to whole-report procedure (3x3 grid, recall as many items as possible) was that sensory memory can hold 4 items

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short-term memory

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link between sensory and long-term memory

lasts 20 seconds without rehearsal, or indefinitely with rehearsal with maintenance rehearsal

holds 7+/- 2

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Long-term memory

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permanent storehouse of experiences, skills, knowledge

can be brief or lifetime

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types of long-term memory

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procedural memory- how things are done

declarative memory- explicit info. includes:

semantic memory- general knowledge

episodic memory- events personally experienced

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encoding differences in short- and long-term

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for verbal info:

short-term is phonological or acoustic

long-term is based on meaning

(supported by semantic priming- recognize words related in meaning faster)

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semantic variation task

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to determine how semantic memory is organized

ask if a statement is true or false, then time how long it takes to respond (called response latency)

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Collins and Loftus

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spreading activation model- words are interconnected by similar theme or meaning, the shorter the distance between two words, the more similarities they share

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Smith, Shoben, and Rips

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semantic feature comparison model-

concepts represented in mind by sets of features (required or typical features). faster to compare two items/ words if there is a lot of similarity or no similarity then just some similarity

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levels of processing theory
(Who)

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Craik and Lockart

only one memory system, how long you remember based on how you processed the info

3 levels (of increasing effort/ memory retention:

physical- focus of appearance

acoustical- focus on sound combinations

semantic- focus of meaning of word

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Paivio's dual-code hypothesis

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info can be stored in two ways: visually and verbally

concrete items are stored both ways, abstract info is just stored verbally

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schema

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part of Paivio's dual-code hypo.

conceptual framework used to organize knowledge

will fit new info into schema, or will alter schema

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decay theory

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if info in long-term not rehearsed, will forget

early theory for forgetting: assumes that what you've learned in the meantime has no effect on memory

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inhibition theory

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modern theory for forgetting

forgetting due to activities taken place between learning and recall

2 types of inhibition

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two types of inhibition

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retroactive- learn something new, interferes with older info

proactive- earlier info interferes with newer info

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encoding specificity

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memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval (same context)

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state-dependent learning

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recall better in same psychological or physical state learning took place

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mnemonic devices (and 2 examples)

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increase likelihood of remembering info

2 examples:

chunking

method of loci- associate info with familiar place

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Sir Frederick Bartlett

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proved that prior knowledge and experience influence recall with "War of the Ghosts" story

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Loftus

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witness accounts influenced by confusing or misleading information

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Zeigarnik Effect

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tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than complete ones

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Luchin's water-jar experiment

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jars filled with water, study how problem solving takes place

related to mental set

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mental set

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tendency to repeat solutions that worked in other situations

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functional fixedness

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belief that certain things have fixed functions

impediment to problem solving

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Guildford's test of divergent thinking

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come up with as many new uses for an object as possible

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Kahneman and Tversky

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heuristics- shortcuts for making decisions

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availability heuristic

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mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision

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representativeness heuristic

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categorize items based on stereotypical, prototypical, or representativeness of image

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base-rate fallacy

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using stereotypes instead of data

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phoneme

morpheme

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smallest unit of sound

of meaning

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semantics

syntax

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meanings of words

grammatical arrangement in sentence

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learning theory (of language development)

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language is acquired through classical and operant conditioning

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cognitive development theory (of language development)

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capacity for symbolic thought develops (Piaget)

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Chomsky

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nativist theory- humans have innate capacity for language (language acquisition device/ LAD)

surface and deep structure, transformational rules

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surface vs deep structure

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Chomsky

deep is meaning, surface is word order

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transformational rules

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how to change a word from one structure to another (like adding -ed)

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Benjamin Worf

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Worfian Hypothesis/ linguistic relativity hypothesis:

perception of reality determined by content of language

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Macoby and Jacklin

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evidence of better verbal abilities in girls

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Spearman

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difference in intelligence due to general factor "g"

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Thurstone

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7 primary mental abilities

ex. verbal comprehension, spatial visualization

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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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3 aspects:

componential- test performance

experiential- creativity

contextual- street/ business smarts

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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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7 defined intelligences

ex. bodily- kinesthetic, logical-mathematical

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Catell's intelligence theory

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fluid intelligence- ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations. decreases as one ages

crystallized intelligence- dependent on education and experience. increases as one ages

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Jensen

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posits that IQ test results are genetic

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McClelland and Rumelhart

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parallel processing in brain (mult. at same time). not serial (one at a time), as was thought

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Metacognition, metamemory

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thinking about and monitoring cognition and memory