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90 Cards in this Set
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Who were the 5 researchers evaluated in order to achieve the conceptualization of "City" in Ch. 1?
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Max Weber - 1958 - Trade/Commercial Relations
Paul Wheatley - 1971 Robert Redfield - 1947 Louis Writh - 1938 Gordon Childe - 1950 - Progressive changes in urban economic structure and social organisation |
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Describe Max Weber's (1958) theory on the development of the City?
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- Emphasis on Trade and Commercial Relations
- Fortification for Defence - Presence of Market - Build on Coast - Partial Interdependence - **Problem: Excluded Oriental cities |
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What were Wheatley (1971), Redfield (1947), and Writh (1938)'s theories about City development?
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- Stressed functional differences b/t Cities and Rural Centres
- Common element of Social Stratification - Movement from familial association to individualism - Depersonalization - Focus on Political/Administrative structures - Marked degree of heterogeneity |
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What are the 9 characteristics essential to defining a city as put forth by Childe (1950)?
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1. Size
2. Function + Composition - agriculturalists vs. non-agriculturalists 3. Public Buildings - temples/pyramids/granaries 4. Taxation - taxes obtained in form of agri products 5. Trade - surplus lead to trade, growth of LD trade a maj. feature associated w/ urbanization 6. Records - important as pop. & trade increased 7. Development of Exact Sciences - geometry, astronomy, emergence of scripts 8. Artistic Expression - pottery, painters, stone masons 9. Leadership - political leadership provided protection |
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How does Childe (1950) define the city?
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- City is a product of revolution
- Urban revolution brings change to social organisation and economic structure |
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What are the 4 Theories of Urban Origin?
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1. Hydraulic
2. Economic 3. Military 4. Religious |
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Describe the Hydraulic Theory of Urban Origin?
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- ideal growing conditions mark beginning of civilization
- emphasis on surplus production - increase in surplus requires admin. systems - Biological Surplus (excess over amount required) vs. Surplus Value (created by human resourcefulness |
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Describe the Economic Theory of Urban Origin?
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- city is the product of LD trade, and is a market which helps process of exchange
- Jane Jacobs (1969), cities begin as trade-posts, become functionally specialized, finally urbanized - **Many did not begin this way, exchange does not necessarily mean social + economic change |
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Describe the Military Theory of Urban Origin?
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- need for personal protection induced concentration of population + promoted craft specialization
- **Arguments contend it was surplus production which actually needed the protection - a surplus created working and ruling classes |
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Describe the Religious Theory of Urban Origin?
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- views the city as a temple
- priests played an important role, protecting/representing initial specialization/storing surplus production/administrative duties |
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What were the 6 major regions in which urban development occurred prior to the "Christian Era"?
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1. Mesopotamia
2. Nile Valley (Egypt) 3. Indus Valley (India/Pakistan) 4. Mediterranean Europe (Roman+Greek) 5. Huang-Ho Valley 6. Mesoamerica |
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Discuss Nuclear Urbanism vs. Diffusion?
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Diffusion - a city was developed and diffused from one area to another, cities were initially developed in Mesopotamia and Egypt thereafter spread eastwards to India and China, westwards into Europe, and finally into the Americas
Urbanism - cities developed concurrently yet independently in different areas and therefore are characterised by different forms of development |
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What are the 5 basic elements related to Urban Evolution?
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1. stages
2. physical features 3. functional changes 4. enlargement 5. continuous growth |
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What is the difference between a Pre-Conceived and Organic City?
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Pre-conceived City - a planned city designed from the initial stage
Organic City - a city which is developed and continues to grow in a natural manner |
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What are the General Processes of Urban Morphogenesis?
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General Processes of Urban Morphogenesis:
1. Land Assignment 2. Connection 3. Technology 4. Capital Accumulation 5. Speculation and Planning 6. Segregation and Congregation Vance (1990) - "the process of urban morphogenesis refers to the creation and changes within a city" - brought about by competing land use, importance of transport, technological developments |
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Discuss the location and important findings relating to Sumerian Civilization
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- Located between Tigris and Euphrates rivers, called Mesopotamia by Greeks
- Focus on economic activity (surplus/urban revolution) - important cities: Ur, Uruk - populations of 15,000 - 25,000 |
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Discuss the Indus Valley and it's importance
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- present day Pakistan
- flourished in 2500 BC - major cities: Mohenjodaro (Indus River), Harappa (Ravi River) |
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List and describe the main elements of Sumerian Civilization?
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1. Tells - artificial accum. of successive bldgs. on top of one another
2. Ziggurats - terraced temple towers (mjr. morphological element) 3. City-States - political autonomy w/ economic interdependence, public bldgs. in central areas 4. Temples - monumental archi, more than 1/city, citizens belonged to temple communities 5. Economic Specialization - agri. surplus helped create stratified society (Childe, 1950), rivers were means of communication+trade 6. Arts/Disciplines - urban societies characterized by presence of artists (Childe, 1950), Astronomy/Science/Math/Medicine studied 7. Urban Planning - bldgs. faced NW due to wind, central court surrounded by rooms, pop. increased & space decreased leading to narrow lanes & dead ends 8. Important Cities - Ur: Euphrates River, 2 harbours, pop. 34,000 Babylon: Euphrates River, defensive wall, dominant public areas, undifferentiated residential areas, pop. 16,000 |
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List and describe the main elements of Indus Valley Civilization?
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- Flourished b/t 2nd and 3rd millennium B.C., prehistoric civilization of India
- North/South extension of nearly 1000 miles - Mature villages replaced by urban centres 1. Economic Specialization - agri. most important, trade was well organized+far reaching (Afghanistan, Iran, Southern India) 2. Urban Planning - evidence of earliest town planning, grids criss-crossing straight streets, blocks further divided into parallel lanes, courtyards at center of house 3. Important Cities - Mohenjodaro: Indus River, laid out in grid pattern, Citadel in Western part of City, granary (1 maj. storehouse/12 min.), monastery also important End of Indus Civilization due to either (1) Environmental Degradation, such as over cultivation & over grazing, possibility of prolonged flooding or (2) War |
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List similarities and differences of the Sumerian and Indus Civilizations?
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Similarities: dependence on agriculture, use of irrigation water, surplus agriculture, monumental art/bldgs
Differences: planned development in Indus but not Sumeria, Sumerian had 15 - 20 cities while Indus only had 2 major urban centres |
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What are the 9 main elements of Greek urbanization?
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1. Polis - city-state whose region included agricultural villages belonging to it (Crete)
2. Acropolis - settlement, especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated ground chosen for purposes of defence of agricultural land, it was the seat of the King, the rest of the town grew along the slopes of the hills around 3. Agora - centre of the lower town and was the meeting place to discuss political/commercial/social issues, located close to Acropolis, became most important area over time, 'theatral' shape sloped with tiers/seats for audience 4. Walls - represented grandness and beauty, were used as an ornament, were added after the city was laid out, more true for the early cities, such as Sparta, than those built later on 5. Shrines & Temples - main religious institution's, located inside Agora 6. Stoa - all-purpose building found in the agora, used for social meetings, political and commercial functions as well as a headquarters for the Magistrates 7. Gymnasium - guided by the presence of a natural spring, attached to a local deity or hero 8. Stadiums - usually located in the outskirts of a city, level land which was 200 yards long, a convenient slope was sought after for the benefit of the spectators 9. Theatre - traditionally the theatre was associated with the Acropolis, a flat surface and slopes rising from that surface was required, due to the mountainous terrain foothills provided an ideal location |
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Describe the difference between Shrines and Temples in Greek civilization?
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Shrines:
piece of land was acquired and an object was placed and dedicated to a deity, A boundary was established in order to preserve the place; and Shrines could be located almost everywhere within the city. If an image of a deity was set up, than a temple as built, housed worshippers Temples: usually had an east-west orientation w/ main front of a temple usually facing east, a temple was the house of a god and its purpose was not to house the worshippers, as shrines were used for such purposes. |
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What were the 2 phases in which migration, and the establishment of planted cities took place in Greek Colonies?
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1. first wave of movement was directed towards Italy and Sicily and thereafter to southern France, Libya and Spain
2. second wave of migration was toward the east along the Black Sea coast |
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What are the major features of planned Greek colonial cities?
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- The streets crossed each other at right angles
- The streets were laid out first, and then lots were assigned to settlers, there was uniformity of size - These urban centres had no Acropolis as the walls provided protection from the enemy - Walls were highly irregular - City space was first divided by north-south streets which led to formation of strips - Further subdivision of the land by east-west oriented streets - On the subdivided land, residential units were constructed and there was no space between the dwellings - All houses had a street frontage |
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List and describe the important Greek cities?
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Athens - located at the centre of the Attic Plain, during times of monarchy was centred at the Acropolis, in 479 B.C. walls were constructed and as a result the city could protect individuals during times of war, the Agora was located to the north-west of the Acropolis
Priene - example of a colonial city established in 350 B.C., Agora covered two blocks and the architectural quality was considered to be very high, City had three stoa, one of which was the sacred Stoa used for religious festivity, city was laid on a rectangular grid pattern Taxilla - founded during rule of Alexander the Great and is located in Pakistan, laid out in a grid plan and had a university, large number of Buddhist temples and shrines, low hills and walls provided defence, the main street ran in a north to south direction while the side streets followed east-west orientation |
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What groups were/are associated with the origins of Roman town planning?
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Greeks - believed by some to have biggest inspiration and influence
Etruscans - lived north of present day Rome, originated from Asia Minor (Middle East) and may have brought grid plan, believed religious traditions played an important role in their contribution Hippodamos - a Greek who institutionalized the grid pattern in town planning |
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What was the common layout of Roman town planning?
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- One north-south and one major east-west line
- Streets crossed at right angles - Major north-south line of transport was referred as "cardo" while the east-west street was called "decumanus" - City was divided into four equal quadrants which were further sub-divided into blocks - **Certain exceptions to this pattern as seen in the case of Aosta, a colony founded in 25 B.C. |
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What are the major features of planned Roman cities?
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1. Temples - prominent urban landmarks, thickly clustered in the public areas and found throughout the city neighbourhoods, earliest temples faced south, located at a high elevation, terra cotta used to build, entrance was from the front of the temple only
2. Roman Forum - located at the centre of the town at the intersection of two main axes - the cardo and decumanus, place of public discussion, major public buildings, temples and administrative centres were located here, centre for trade and commerce w/ specialized markets depending on city size 3. Roman City House - house built around a courtyard "atrium", inward looking with blank walls to the street, helped to provide light and ventilation, was the central ceremonial place of the Roman house, Atrium houses were one-storied and inhabited by the upper income groups of the urban society Suburbs - need was in response to growing population pressure which led to the emergence of rural residence or "villas", upper income groups migrated to the country to take advantage of openness and space. Emergence of the multi-storey buildings "insulae" used for residential and commercial purposes, were tenant houses, poor technical/structural quality, gradually regulations restricted height, upper levels faced problems such as water supply, thus an inverse relationship between socio-economic status and floor lived on |
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List and Describe the 3 types of Roman Settlements?
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1. Colonia and Municipium: The "colonia" was the settlement for discharged veterans of Roman origin. Land was divided and each soldier was allotted land the size of which was dependent on his rank in the army. The "Municipium" was of lower order than colonia and the citizens had limited rights. This settlement could in future upgrade itself into a colonia
2. Peregrine Status: Settlements inhabited by native population. In England such settlements were known as civitates and the population consisted of British tribal communities who did not enjoy similar privileges as those in the colonia and municipium. Subdivisions of civitates were known as "pagi". These were the rural districts where the population was based on agriculture 3. Military Forts: Army forts which were involved with the dual purpose of spreading and maintaining Roman power, establishment of forts led to the subsequent growth of settlements close by. In Roman England these were referred as "vici". The vici were characterised by the development of trading suburbs outside the gates of the forts. In some cases these settlements were incorporated within the fortification. The role of these settlements was to meet the needs of the local population as well as the soldiers. |
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List and Describe the important Roman cities?
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Rome - started as a small town located about 25 km from the mouth of the Tiber River. The first settlement was located on the Palatine Hill. Thereafter, there was a gradual extension and joining of existing villages on the six hills of Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian, Quinnal, Esquiline, and Viminal.The earliest temples of Rome faced south towards the peaks of Alban Hills. The temples were distinctive landmarks and illustrated the physical growth of the city. The important temples were the Temple of Diana (on the Aventine Hill), Temple of Castor (Forum Romanum) and the Temple of Mercurius.
Ostia - developed as an important naval and commercial centre. As a centre of grain imports, a number of "horrea", or warehouses, were located in the city. The city also had a growing ship building industry Pompeii - located at the foot of mount Vesuvius. The terrain was highly uneven and the only even section was in the south west where a number of Temples, such as those of Apolo, Diana, Mercury, were located. There were schools, theatres, trade unions and industries. Before the eruption of the volcano, the city grew beyond the walls. Heterogenous population as suggested by the existence of Romans, Greeks, Asians and slaves |
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List and Describe the names and important features of Roman Towns in England?
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- the army played an important role in the selection of sites and construction of roads. The cities were instruments of conquest and the army possessed technical expertise on planning that was not available to the local population. A large number of towns incorporated the ground plan of the military forts
Two regions can be classified: 1. military region of the North and West 2. the civil zone with towns, villas, and other civilian centres which existed w/o military instillations Silchester - administrative town which grew at the focal point of roads and had a forum. In addition, there were four temples, a public bath, amphitheatre, and a wall. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the city continued to flourish as a market town Caerwent - an administrative town of southern Wales, had twenty insulaes, a forum, bath, temple and an amphitheatre. It also had houses with inner courtyards - Other important Roman centres in England were Glevum (Gloucester), Chester, Wroxeter, Leicester and Erburacum (York) |
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The period of social formlessness between 476-1000 was called what?
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The Dark Ages
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What characteristics were evident in the settlement pattern of the Western Roman Empire during the Middle Ages?
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- The growth of small detached villages
- An absence of any formal (town) plan - Land cultivation by the local residents. Society was dependent on small land holdings while settlements were defined as "haufendorfer" (i.e. small villages that were thrown together) The local production and consumption of goods was encouraged to the point where communities functioned as economically self-contained units |
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What were the 2 major types of settlements which emerged as the medieval cities of the 13th Century?
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- Natural Settlements: based on the local economy and emerged inside a closed feudal (political-economic) domain
- Systemic settlements were based on long-distance trade and less subjected to the power of feudalism. Long distance trade was an important feature of economic and urban development. Cities were set up at places which had potential for trade. At the same time, increased industrial production led to a rise in the number of tradesmen who were prepared to travel and take risks |
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Discuss the eight theories to explain European urban origins in the Middle Ages as proposed by Benton (1968)?
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1. Mercantile Settlement Theory - Urban centres were based on long-distance trade, merchants needed to live along the major transport routes, the merchant population was mainly composed of foreigners
2. Market Theory - Urban centres were based on local trade, trade was dependent on products from the immediate area and required a market which led to the growth of urban centres 3. Artisinal Theory - A division of labour existed between those associated with agriculture and handicrafts, which led to the emergence of a specialist group, known as the artisians, the towns of eastern Germany owe their origin to the artisans 4. Guild Theory - The urban population was differentiated according to ethnic origin, socio-economic status, and occupation, despite heterogeneity people were highly organised within the framework of various centrally organized guilds (trade association), the location of the different guilds was determined by the influence that each one could exercise by offering its services to the emperor 5. Military Theory - Urban settlements developed as there was the need to establish defence sites, the functions of these settlements were to protect the region's civilian population and to serve as production centres which provide the army's needs, larger cities served as strategic regional centres while smaller cities played a role in the regional defence plan 6. Ecclesiastic Theory - The administrative hierarchy of religious institutions (the Catholic and Anglican Churches) was applied to the settlement system and its subsequent growth, Bishops-Archbishop-Chuch Leader, the Church granted welfare to inhabitants of the city and its surrounding area, religious institutions had an impact on the economic base of the urban centres. Their activities (e.g. monastery construction) created employment opportunities and diversified the economic base of larger cities. 7. Free Village Theory - Towns developed from villages, and town development continued without any break in continuity 8. Romanist Theory - Towns were direct successors of Roman settlement, town development continued without any break in continuity. |
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What were the most frequently used building materials in the houses of Mediterranean cities and those in Central Europe?
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Mediterranean - Stone
Central Europe - Timber - For cities, street frontage was critical because in the lower floors of the house economic activities were carried on. The size of the plot depended on the size of the family and needs of the household |
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Describe the Market Place and its importance in Medieval cities?
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- most notable feature of Medieval cities
- important buildings, such as the town hall and the church, were usually located around the market - the market place normally held transaction activities on the days when considerable number of people attended a church service |
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Discuss the features of Medieval cities located south of the Alps?
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- Neighbourhood heterogeneity
- Economic activities were assigned to the ground floor while the upper levels were used as living quarters - An important family was associated with each neighbourhood. The founding family and its subsequent generations lived in that area |
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Discuss the features of Medieval cities located north of the Alps?
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- The presence of a street grid and continued existence of Roman monuments
- Guilds were an important feature of urban centres - Guilds helped to bound individuals of similar economic and social interest - The guildhall represented an important element of urban space - The city was a collection of occupational districts |
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Discuss and define Guilds, and highlight their importance in Medieval cities?
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- centre of economic and social life of the people in a specific trade
- Following seven years of training, the Apprentice graduated to the category of journeymen. The journeymen were trained workers but continued to work for the Master because they did not have sufficient capital to set up their own shops - Workshops were located on the first floor, the master's residence on the next floor, and storerooms along with workers' residences on the higher floors |
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What were the two major areas of urban growth during the Medieval Ages?
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Two major areas of urban growth are:
- Flanders (Belgium) - Northern France Where large and important merchant towns existed. Small towns and cities of a considerable size were also established in other trade-supporting regions. Success of Medieval European urban centres depended on trade |
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Urban growth during the Medieval period may be divided into two phases, what are they?
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1. 11th and 12th Centuries, the reclamation of agricultural land resulted in the establishment of urban centres
2. 13th and 14th Centuries, conflicts led to the establishment of new urban centres |
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What were Bastides, and what were their important features?
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- centres from which land reclamation, road building, and other activities were carried out
Important features included: serving as agricultural centres and strong points in disputed frontier regions, settlers were attracted because they had a right to hold market, new settlers were granted plots of land, and sometimes construction material, to build houses, new settlers were also attracted because they would be exempt from personal services associated with the feudal economy, and the lord was responsible for the construction of the defensive wall |
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Discuss the ground plan for Bastides, why were they built this way?
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- Laid out in a regular grid plan with streets crossing at right angles
- Variations between bastides were attributed to topographic differences - All Bastides had a common public space at their centre or close to it - The settlement plan was developed in advance with plots that reflected social equality - Bastides were distinguished by the absence of a castle (since they granted freedom from feudalism) |
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Establishment of Bastides were usually decided upon by Lords or Ruling Houses. What two questions were usually raised when coming to the decision of where a Bastide should be located?
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- Where does unused land that could be reclaimed exist?
- Which area would bring the highest "cens" or returns to the lord? |
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From an economic perspective, what were the most important features associated with Bastides?
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- Artisans and merchants were attracted to promote long-distance trade
- Bastides were sometimes located on or near major rivers - Agricultural production was meant for local consumption and export |
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In order to promote such settlements as Bastides, outsiders or "hotes" were invited to settle. What were the characteristics of the bastidor's plots?
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- Land was divided into blocks, "insulae" or "îlots"
- New settlers were given rectangular plots within the insulae called "placeae" - Individual houses were separated from each other by narrow passageways called "androynes" - Walls and gates were given importance at the initial stage of town planning and they determined the layout of major streets - The market square and church each occupied an îlot - Agricultural products were sold in the market square - The square was also used to promote social contact amongst the residents - Houses surrounding the market square served as commercial and residential centres. Merchants lived in the upper floors - Simpler and ordinary rectangular houses were located beyond the square. They often housed artisans and their workshops which produced goods that met the local market requirements - Farmers' dwellings were located towards the settlement's edge |
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What type of people comprised the general population of Bastides?
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- Population was comprised of active workers involved in manufacturing, trading, and agriculture
- Bishops and the territorial lord usually lived outside these settlements |
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What were some examples of Bastides and their characteristics?
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Montaubau: one of the earliest Bastides, its site is on a terrain surrounded by the Tarn River and its tributaries, layout of the streets and the wall was determined by the terrain, land was divided into equal rectangular blocks , public square in centre
Cordes: founded in 1222 by Count Raymond of Toulouse and became one of largest Bastides, built because region had suffered during the Abigensian War, the devastated countryside and its population were in need of protection, principal economic activities were industry and commerce Villeneuve-Sur-Lot: built as a bastide in 1264 on the site of an earlier medieval town, divided by river, main quarter is located on the right bank and has streets running in the north-south and east-west, market square and the church were located on this quarter, on the left bank was the suburb Beaumont-Du-Perigord: established on top of a hill in 1272, ground plan was adapted to the terrain, four main streets traversing the town, short streets formed a rough gridiron pattern, main square was located closer to the centre and was surrounded by houses with arcades on the ground floor Monpazier: established 1284 by King of England, role of this settlement was to provide defence, space enclosed within the town walls had a checkerboard street pattern. There was a large square and uniformly laid rows of houses of equal size, houses were separated from one another by "andrones" or narrow spaces Villefranche-De-Rouergue: on the right bank of the Aveyron River, established to transfer the population from the bourg located on left bank to the right bank, not planted to promote agricultural production Three Zones of Villefranche-De-Rouergue: - 1st contained the bastide where land was subdivided into equal lots - 2nd contained the bari land used for gardens and vineyards - 3rd contained land for agricultural production square and the main church were located in the northern part of the bastide. The layout of major and side streets followed the terrain |
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What were the two major processes which led to the emergence of urban centres in central Europe?
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1. - establishment of small-scale market towns, fortified strongholds, and long-distance trading centres (e.g. Magdeburg, Lübeck, and Berlin)
2. expansion of major centres originating from the Roman period was promoted along three lines - 1st line of expansion was from Hellweg to Magdeburg - 2nd was along the Baltic coast to Bordowick - 3rd was along the Danube valley to Vindobana (Vienna) |
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What major morphological elements did most Central European cities include?
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- Stronghold (castle or fortified settlement)
- Suburbium (consisted of artisans and merchants) - Church - Market |
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What were the major elements of Pre-Medieval settlement in Central and Eastern Europe?
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- Roman settlements used wood and earth as building materials, replaced by stone which began to be used for public buildings and fortifications
- Roman settlements were usually laid out in squares or rectangles - Streets crossed at right angles with major streets being called the "decumanus" and the "cardo" - The town's major road leading out to the country was the "via principalis" - The town's economic centre, called the "forum", was located at the intersection of the main streets - Some towns (Mainz, Trier, and Strasbourg) were walled in the third or fourth century rather than from the beginning |
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What were the major elements of Medieval settlement in Central and Eastern Europe?
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Stronghold or Burgh - set up during 10th and 12th Centuries to resist invasions, formed the settlement's nucleus and provided refuge for people from the countryside during attacks, two distinctive features associated with the stronghold were the imperial palace and bishop's seat
Suburbium - Merchants and artisans began to migrate from the countryside and settle outside the fortifications, they exchanged goods at weekly markets and formed mercantile settlements which evolved into market settlements during the 12th Century. Two types of markets were those developed by migrant merchants in the shadow of the strongholds were known as the "forum", and those established (to promote trade) by important dynastic families on virgin land independent of the stronghold were known as the "flora". Medieval concept of a town, referred to as "civitas", was fully developed by the middle of the 12th Century Role of Transport - Most strongholds and mercantile settlements were located on major transportation routes which promoted merchant trade and the local market, Major highways extended from the west toward the northeast, most important route was the Hellweg which connected Cologne and Magdeburg via Dortmund and Paderborn, second most important road ran from Duisburg to Bartowick and then to Lübeck |
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What were two important elements of Medieval town structure?
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Market Square - settlements of eastern Germany (east of Elbe River) developed at a later date and were characterised by the presence of large market squares. This was due mainly to the fact that most of these centres emerged as market settlements. As the importance and intensity trade increased, new buildings were constructed in order to carry the transactions
Fortification and Gates - number of gates indicated the town's history. Towns with one gate were rarely found. Two gate towns were traversed by one main street and were small in size (e.g. Bitterfeld and Hörde). Three-gate towns meant that one of the streets did not lead to a gate. The most common type was the four-gate town (Naumburg had nine gates, Hamburg had ten, and Magdeburg had sixteen gates) |
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What were/are the major cities of Central and Eastern Europe (particularly Germany)?
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Cologne (Köln) - Established as planned settlement for the Roman veterans, Cologne dates back to 50 B.C. In 50 A.D., the settlement was elevated to "colonia" status, hence the city's name, and was surrounded by walls
Lübeck - located in north-eastern Germany along the Baltic Sea, attracted merchants because of its coastal location, destroyed by the Wends in 1138 and ceded to Henry the Lion who made it a religious centre, market was built and walls were constructed in 1163, main streets followed the terrain and there were three main churches, continued its importance as a trading town, housing plots were narrow and deep because street frontage was expensive Magdeburg - established in 937 A.D. along the Elbe River importance as a market town is derived from its successive functions: an ecclesiastical centre in the 10th Century, a colonial centre during the 11th Century, and as a commercial centre associated with the Hanseatic League during the 13th Century Breslau (Wroclaw) - Located at the crossing of the Oder River, this city originated as a strong point or "grod", A "suburbium" subsequently development and Breslau emerged as an important trading centre by the 10th Century, destroyed in 1241 and rebuilt during the 1260s by German merchants. As a result, the town had a market square |
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By what two patterns did city development take place in European Mercantile cities?
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1. - there were the capitals which represented authority and grandnes
2. - there were the merchants' towns which owed their origin to the spread of mercantilism, spatial expansion of trade necessitated the enlargement of trading facilities which existing medieval structures could not support, importance was attached to transportation networks which became the lifeline of urban existence |
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Which one European Mercantile city became of increasing importance during the Middle Ages?
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Amsterdam, which had existed as a medieval port, entered into trade during the 16th Century. The dikes, dwelling characteristics, occupational segregation, and canals of Amsterdam played important roles in its growth and development
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Which countries were involved in the process of trade expansion during the 17th and 18th Centuries?
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England, France, Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden
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European trade expansion may be divided into two stages, what were they?
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1st Stage - Spain and Portugal were Europe's major suppliers of commodities
2nd Stage - Other western European countries gradually became involved in the development of plantations and slave trade. Some of the major trade commodities included sugar, tobacco, cotton, indigo, and tea. Many of the imported materials needed further processing and this, in turn, paved the way for the development of new industries and import substitution |
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What were the main reasons behind the new reputation and development of the Netherlands as a hotbed for commercial activity?
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- The commercial advantage held by various port cities with access to shipping via the North Sea
- Cities also had the advantage of possessing a merchant class with the skills to promote continuous economic development. The presence of industries, shipbuilding, and financial capabilities also fostered economic prosperity - Technological innovation was encouraged to develop new machines and industrial processes as well as to improve efficiency and productivity |
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What were/are the important cities of the Netherlands?
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Amsterdam:
- began as a small fishing village on a dam which was built in the 12th Century on the Amstel River - Dikes were constructed to regulate the course of the Amstel and Ij Rivers - City developed as an elongated U and, in the 17th Century, a number of concentric canals were built. - - The famous Herengracht, Keizersgracht, Prinsengracht, and Singelgracht Canals gave the city its characteristic aspect - Canals were linked by a number of radial canals which divided the city into 90 small islands that are linked by numerous bridges - Major urban expansion peaked in 1367, 1380, and 1450 - Amsterdam's importance grew during the 16th Century when industry and commerce received a strong impetus - The city became the entrepot for Asian imports. As its wealth and prosperity rose, the population increased from 50,000 in 1600 to 200,000 in 1700 - 17th Century, developed zoning plans to regulate urban land-use and building construction Delft: - Settlement on the Schie River originates from "delve" which means a narrow and shallow ditch - Canals determined the town's structure - Delft was a market town for dairy products - Beer brewing was introduced in the 13th Century - The town became a major pottery centre after the art was introduced from China London: - Historical development may be traced to nearly two thousand years which included three periods of changes: Roman, Medieval, and Industrialization - Established as Londonium by the Roman in 43 A.D - At the initial stage, a military fort was established on the site which later obtained a civilian character and became a "provincia". As early as 43 A.D., the Romans realized that the site was the hub for land communications and possessed the potential of becoming a major port and trading centre - Continued prosperity throughout the 17th Century attributed to the presence of capital, a large colonial empire, natural resources, cheap labour, and an entrepreneurial class helped the city to maintain its economic supremacy - The shipping industry was promoted to support London's importance as a commercial shipping centre |
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How did the origin and morphology of early North American cities come about?
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- Result of frontier mercantilism (1790-1840) which emphasized agricultural production and the export of staples and of urban traditions associated with the Renaissance Period (1400-1800) which emphasized order, discipline, and civic grandeur
- France, Spain, Britain (England), and the Netherlands (Holland) established colonial outposts which evolved into major urban centres |
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What were the three types of settlements Spain created in the Southern and Western parts of the United States?
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- "Missions" for religious orders
- "Presidios" for the military - "Pueblos" for civilians - The physical form of Spanish towns resembled the bastides of France, new settlements were developed according to prescribed set of universal rules - Known as The Laws of the Indies, this "covered everything from the selection of sites, the building of ramparts, and the specification of for the main plaza, to the location of principal streets and important buildings, and the size of lots" (Hodge 1986, 36) |
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What were/are the important cities of Early Canada?
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Quebec:
- From its beginning in 1608, was developed as a planned city - main feature of the city was the presence of rectangular grid streets - Open square that functioned as a market place - The church was in close proximity to the market square as one would find in the cities of Medieval Europe, and played a very important role in the city - The upper town reflected limited planning Montreal: - Established in 1642, first group of settlers were comprised of missionaries, nuns, soldiers and settlers - Church's role in urban development had been significant - Topographic features confined the initial (lower town) settlement to a long linear grid pattern along the St. Lawrence River - Montreal became a major commercial and industrial centre after control moved from French to English hands Louisbourg: - established in 1713 as a military stronghold to protect the pre-existing fishing village and France's access to the other colonies along the St. Lawrence River - functioned as a fortress and trading centre until 1760 when the British attacked and destroyed it |
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What were the 4 main aspects of Town Planning in the American South and West?
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Site Selection:
- Site for a town was required to be on elevated land - Area needed to be surrounded by agricultural land - Access to water, timber and fuel were important Central Plaza: - Distinctive element of the Spanish towns - Both coastal and inland centres were required to prescribe a location for it - The orientation of the plaza had to be such that the four corners pointed to the four cardinal points of the compass - An orderly square grid pattern of streets and blocks branching out from the central plaza Building Lots: - specifications regarding the location of important buildings within a town - In a coastal city the church had to face the plaza and, in the event of attack, was to serve as a strong point - other important buildings established around the plaza were the town hall, customs house, hospital other public buildings, and dwellings of wealthy households Housing Lots: - Settlers of the towns were required to construct temporary huts and thereafter join in the construction of a palisade around the plaza - Beyond the residential lots were agricultural lands |
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What were the 3 main functions St. Augustine was build to perform?
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1. - To serve as a defence centre (hence the fort as located within the city)
2. - To serve as a civilian settlement for trade, farming and handicraft industry 3. - To carry on religious duties - The first religious settlement was set up at San Diego and thereafter a number of them were extended northwards to Sonoma - Four presidios (for military activities) were established during the 18th Century: San Diego, Monterey, San Francisco and Santa Barbara |
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What were the 4 groups Reps (1965) classified the 13 east coastal colonies into?
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- Tidewater Colonies of Virginia and Maryland (Jamestown)
- New Towns of New England (Boston) - Towns of the Middle Colonies (New Amsterdam, Philadelphia) - Colonial Towns of the South (Charleston) |
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What elements of Industrial Development were responsible for the growth of American cities?
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- Water power was a major locational factor
- Manufacturing contributed to the expansion of the leading eastern posts while some northeastern cities became the cradle of industrial development within the United States - The beginning of the industrial development also meant a strong and continuous flow of migrants to the cities |
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What technological developments of the Industrial Revolution were instrumental agents of urban transformation?
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- Textile production was main manufacturing activity + greatest contributor to Britain's economy during the Industrial Revolution's early stages
- In 1733 the invention of the flying shuttle increased the speed of weaving, the reliance on human labour decreased by nearly 50% while the productivity was greatly increased - The spinning jenny (1765), and the machine loom (1787) which escalated the speed of spinning - English textile mills began to use steam power following James Watt's invention of the steam engine in 1784. The application of mechanical power led to a spatial shift of industries - The substitution of animate energy sources (e.g. animals and humans) with inanimate ones (machines and fossil fuels) significantly increased the agricultural sector's productivity and efficiency (Gillis 1986) - Mechanization of farming also created a rural labour surplus |
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What were the characteristics of cities during the Industrial Revolution? (4 zones)
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Zone I: Central City - Coincided with the urban core and possessed all the characteristics of a contemporary Central Business District, was actively used for industrial and commercial purposes during the day and almost deserted at night, Multi-functional buildings were concentrated within the central city, lower floors were used for retail activities while the upper stores contained offices
Zone II: Working Class Residential Areas - Was entirely occupied by the working class who had limited earnings to pay for transportation, The journey-to-work distance often restricted residential options to this zone. Two types of housing were associated with the working class: row houses and back-to-backs Zone III: Middle Class Districts - usually located outside the working class area, characterised by the presence of regularly laid out streets along which row houses were constructed Zone IV: Upper Class Suburbs - Upper class moved to suburbs to escape the central city's undesirable conditions, Two housing types existed within the suburbs. Firstly, detached villas surrounded by extensive grounds. Secondly, terraces of row houses which were structurally similar to but architecturally different from those of the working class area |
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What were/are the important cities of the Industrial Revolution in England?
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Manchester:
- City's origin dates back to the Roman period when it was known as "Mamucium" or "Mancunium" - Original settlement was military in nature - Urban development occurred during the 16th and 17th Centuries when textile industries gained a strong foothold in southern Lancashire region - Since the 17th Century, Manchester came to be recognised as a leading commercial and industrial centre - Industrialization and railway network expansion were responsible for major changes in the city's structure - First "shock city" because it was the first place to experience, at an intensive level, all of the social, economic and political changes associated with industrial urbanization |
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What were the 4 stages of industrial and urban development in America during the Industrial Revolution?
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1. - The important industry, textiles, was concentrated in New England (Philadelphia, Boston, Beverly, and Providence)
2. - Small centres emerged in close proximity of the larger colonial port cities, manufacturers usually provided housing for the workers who migrated from the countryside. Housing and employment were the two important incentives used by the industrialists to attract workers 3. - Major industrial cities were established. Emphasis was placed on integration such that all activities pertaining to the production of a commodity were to be established within a factory. Mechanization gained importance during this stage because the country faced a labour shortage problem 4. - Marked by the development of "industrial satellites". These were industrial towns located close to a major city. The latter also provided financial, medical, legal and other services to the satellite towns |
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What are the 2 main factors which provided momentum to industrialization and urbanization?
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1. - an increase in the number of immigrants provided a large and cheap labour pool. The new migrants also increased the local population size also increased and created a demand for industrial products
2. - Increased wages and earnings of American industrial workers led to a rise in per-capita, consumption, and development of other industries. Over time, the multiplier effect of industries became more extensive and had its impact on urban development |
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Name 2 technological advancements behind the existence of large cities throughout the world?
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- Iron and steel construction paved the way towards high-rise buildings
- The electric elevator represents another major reason behind the spatial and demographic growth of large cities - The increasing urban population led to the debut of the "elevator apartment house" in New York |
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In what areas did technological advancements contribute to the Industrial City's distinctive spatial form and land-use characteristics?
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Areas of: transport, housing construction, along with the retail and industrial sectors
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Discuss the main points about the advancement of Transportation technology?
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- The first horse-drawn omnibus service was introduced in New York during 1829
- Railroads were a major influence on urban structure between 1870 and 1920, they were responsible for land-use reorganization - Railways were responsible for the foundation of the modern day Central Business District (CBD) - Expansion of the railroad networks stimulated the growth of new satellite towns which contained the estates of wealthy families - Railways increased the CBD's functional importance, regulated urban form, and intensified the spatial stratification of industrial society (Yeates 1990) - Electric street cars were another answer to the problems of intra-urban transport - First used in Richmond (1888) and Boston (1889), their superior speed and operational efficiency made them the leading mode of public transit by the early-1900s - Since 1920 - Automobiles provided freedom of movement to all destinations - Suburban residents could easily access downtown and suburban places of employment, retail, services, and so forth - Automobile also facilitated and intensified the decentralization and dispersal of both people and urban functions, including commercial and industrial activities |
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What were the 3 era's of Transportation in America?
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1. - The "walking (or pedestrian) city" (pre-1870)
2. - The "streetcar suburbs" (1870-1920) 3. - The "automobile era" (post-1920) |
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What were some major strides made in Housing Technology during the morphology of the industrial city?
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- 1870s and 1880s witnessed the installation of fixed baths, water closets, internal hot water systems, as well as gas for lighting and heating in houses
- Development of skyscrapers which were introduced in Chicago during the 1880s (i.e. the reconstruction period following the Great Fire of 1871) in order to satisfy office space demands within the CBD - the Elevator (invented by Elisha Otis in the 1850s) and Iron-Frame Construction (developed by James Bogardus) helped pave the way for skyscrapers |
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What were the two stages of changes made to the Retail Sector during the morphology of the industrial city?
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- Second half of the 1800s that the modern CBD emerged, centre of economic, social, political, and cultural life in American cities
1. - 1840 to 1870 was characterised by the presence of a small nucleus, usually near the waterfront, composed of the following elements: (1) A warehouse district which was the result of increasing commercial activities, (2) A financial area which was the result of financial and insurance services required by merchants, (3) A retail trade zone in between the warehouse district and financial area. 2. - Advent of mass consumption and mass transit during the 2nd period (1870 to 1900), produced functional specialization within the urban core, progressive specialization of services coincided with the CBD's physical expansion. Distinctive spatial characteristics are: (1) The financial area continued to grow, (2) Distinct retail and wholesale areas emerged, (3) Manufacturing activities were displaced from the CBD, (4) An administrative district also emerged Other Changes: - Retail trade, which was scattered between the warehouse district and financial area, became a predominant activity - Multi-storey "department stores" began to grow within the retail district - Urban size played an important role in the creation of specialized sub-districts with the retail districts and led to the clustering of high-order services (e.g. banks, law & insurance offices, medical centres) - An administrative district also emerged within the CBD during the second period which consisted of the city hall and civic buildings (e.g. courthouse, library and post office) |
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What changes took place in the Industrial Sector during the morphology of the industrial city?
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- Most significant development with the industrial sector was the concept of mass production (Henry Ford)
- The impact of mass production techniques were manifold, (1) there was the increased use of trucks deliver raw materials and semi-finished components (for assembly) and to distribute finished products within and between urban centres, (2) it was responsible for the dispersal of assembly plants to the peripheral sites - This movement towards the city's outer edges allowed more space for the workers - Plants also began to depend on the materials and components that were stored within them meant a greater need for space - Factories also increased their independence on self-transporting workers which resulted in the requirement for large parking space |
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What is the bid-rent curve, and how does it function?
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- The curve represents the price that a particular land-use will pay for sites with increasing distance from the CBD
- Retailers are expected to occupy centralized positions because of the high income that they may yield - Dwelling location is determined by a trade-off between the amount of disposable income a household is prepared to devote to land (rent) and travel costs |
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Discuss and explain the "Sector Model", developed by Homer Hoyt (1939)?
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- Wedge-shaped sections, characterized by increasing wages, spread outward from the city centre along streetcar routes which functioned as growth axes
- Housing quality and cost respectively improved and increased as one moved away from the CBD - Industrial and warehouse properties tend to be surrounded by sectors of working class housing while middle class areas acted as a buffer between the working class and the elite neighbourhoods |
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Explain the period after World War I, and the growth which took place?
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- Associated with low-density suburban in-fill (i.e. between the streetcar growth axes) and the widespread use of automobiles
- During the 1920s and 1930s, many cities constructed "highways" which brought automobiles to areas that were once virtually inaccessible - Housing demands during the years immediately following World War II were extremely high in light of a past economic depression and wartime restrictions - In the United States, the 1950s witnessed the expansion and upgrading of intra-urban highway as well as the construction of inter-urban "parkways" |
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What were the differences in development between America and Europe during the post-World War II period (i.e. since 1945)?
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- In Europe, public planning and post-war reconstruction dominated urban development until the 1960s (Knox 1993)
- American urbanization experienced a private market-oriented construction boom since 1947 (Brunn, Yeates and Zeigler 1993) |
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Discuss the residential segregation which occurred in post-World War II period (i.e. since 1945)?
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- The post-war city was characterised by the presence of homogeneous residential tracts
- The rise in immigration contributed to a new social geography - Ethnicity became a pronounced dimension of residential differentiation within cities. |
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What are the 4 factors residential separation is based on?
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1. - Social Status: Based on positions held by individuals within the economic framework and, therefore, is dependent on education, occupation and income
2. Household Type: Households are important in an understanding of residential segregation because they determines the housing needs and preferences responsible for spatial congregation and interaction, residential needs and preferences are also dependent on the family life cycle 3. Ethnic Origin: Refers to a population group sharing, or identifying with, a distinct culture (actual or perceived) and united by a sense of common origin, heritage, or ancestry based on race, nationality, and geographic origin or some combination thereof (Chinatown, Little Italy) 4. Lifestyle: Play an important role in the social geography of a city, as individuals with similarities tend to cluster together. Traditionally, individuals were classified as being home centered careerists and consumerists |
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What are some of the variants associated with the rise of glass box architecture in the 1960's?
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- Windowless boxes of brick or concrete made possible by lighting and air-circulation technologies
- Buildings that dramatize geometry with their unusual forms - Buildings that project technological advancement with exposed ducts, pipes, elevators, and railings - Buildings that dramatize structural framework with girder |
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What were the 5 stages in Canadian retail development recognized by Jones (1991)?
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1. - In the 1950s, shopping centres were developed after the house stock was built such that the characteristics of the population were known
2. - In the 1960s, there was a shift towards simultaneously building shopping centres and homes 3. - Late-1960s, the level of corporate control increased such that developers became important players in the spatial distribution of retail outlets. There was homogeneity in the goods, services and tenants 4. - By the late-1970s, shopping centres were seen as growth poles that would stimulate future residential development. Regional shopping malls were built at the intersection of major highways 5. - During the 1980s, shopping centres, such as the West Edmonton Mall, were also associated with entertainment and tourism **Wholesale trade changed radically after 1945. The growing importance of truck transport (over rail transport) induced the peripheral re-concentration of terminals and warehouses |
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What were some things that were collectively responsible for the decentralization of industries?
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- Rising cost of downtown land
- Increased worker mobility - Greater dependence on trucks - Use of government incentives - Need to stock pile components and parts led to the horizontal expansion of the factories |
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Describe "Urban Realms" and the concept surrounding them?
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- Urban realms are the product of freeway expansion and suburban in-filling
- Each realm has retail, commercial and residential land-uses but lack self-sufficiency - People need to cross the boundaries of each realm in order to work, shop, socialize, etc. - Urban residents do not use the entire metropolis except when attending to certain needs |
