Ess Exam Studying

Front 1

ecological pyramids

Back 1

Front 2

food chains

Back 2

Front 3

pyramid models

Back 3

only 10% of energy gets transferred per level

Front 4

How to calculate percentage increase

Back 4

BR - DR = x

x / 10

Front 5

How to calculate doubling time

Back 5

70 / percentage increase = doubling time in years

Front 6

Demographic Transition Model

Back 6

Front 7

things that affect population increase

Back 7

1. infant mortality

2. Child Labor

3. Girl's education

4. status of women

5. birth control

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Age sex pyramid

Back 8

Front 9

Ecological Footprint

Back 9

measured in area required to provide the resources for a population per year

two components taken into account: food, CO2

calculation:

food: consumption / productivity

+

CO2: CO2 emission / CO2 fixation

= x (ha)

x * population = result (mha)

the result is then compared to actual size of the population to determine if it is sustainable. result > actual population = unsustainable

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Renewable resource

Back 10

a living resource that is naturally replaced and can be used again

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replenishable resource

Back 11

a non-living resource that is naturally replaced and can be used again

Front 12

Non-renewable resource

Back 12

a resource that cannot be naturally replaced on a level equal to its consumption

Front 13

productivity

Back 13

amount produced per unit area of land/ per person employed (total amount produced)

Front 14

efficiency

Back 14

ratio between the work or energy output and energy input (output divided by input)

Front 15

maximum sustainable yield

Back 15

the maximum amount that can be used/taken, where the level of replacement is equal to the level of consumption.

Front 16

resources give us natural capital

Back 16

natural capital can come in the form of goods and services

Front 17

Sand fineness (in order)

Back 17

loam, gravel, sand, silt, clay

Front 18

soil inputs

soil outputs

Back 18

1. H20 (precipitation)

2. organic material from dead fauna/flora

3. CO2 (respirating soil fauna)

4. excretions from fauna

1. nutrients loss through leeching

2. H20 (evaporation)

3. loss of soil (soil erosion)

4. nutrients in soil taken by plants

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terrestrial (efficient)

1. length of food chains

2. efficiency of transfer

3. GPP Efficiency

4. Harvest of food

Back 19

1. short - less energy is lost since energy is lost throughout a food chain

2. 10% - more energy is required to live on land (e.g. against gravity)

3. Higher - sunlight directly hits producers

4. Low - if you harvest low on the food chain, then there is more energy

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aquatic (efficient)

1. length of food chains

2. efficiency of transfer

3. GPP Efficiency

4. Harvest of food

Back 20

1. Long - high biodiversity and various fauna/flora

2. 15% - less energy is required to live in water

3. lower - the sunlight has to travel through water

4. High - fish are high on foodchain

Front 21

commercial farming

1. inputs

2. outputs

3. system traits

4. socio-cultural

5. environmental impact

Back 21

1. corn (feeding animals), fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, fossil fuels

2. meat, processed food, soil erosion

3. monoculture, GM techniques, pesticides/ herbicides

4. government subsidies, capitalistic

5. habitat loss, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity

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subsistent farming

1. inputs

2. outputs

3. system traits

4. socio-cultural

5. environmental impact

Back 22

1. forest litter, excursion, irrigation, human labour

2. food items and game

3. terracing, contour plowing, cover crops and irrigation

4. aesthetic value from biodiversity, festivals for successful harvest

5. biodiversity, agrarian expansion (more cultivated land)

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Causes of soil degradation

Effects of soil degradation

Back 23

overgrazing, deforestation, use of chemical fertilizers, over irrigation.

Soil erosion, eutrophication of local lakes, salinization, desertification.

Front 24

Reduction of soil erosion/degradation (farming)

Back 24

terraces

contour plowing

cover crops

irrigation

Front 25

Models (stores - flows)

Back 25

stores (stock) - energy, mass, volume, etc. represented as boxes. e.g. soil organism

flows - represented as arrows e.g. respiration, decomposition

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Eutrophication

Back 26

1. human input (Nitrates + Phosphates)

2. growth of algae increases (more turbidity)

3. blocks sunlight

4. plants die (more bacteria)

5. bacteria use up oxygen and kill fish (BOD is too high)

6. even more bacteria

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strategies to prevent eutrophication

Back 27

1. stop using artificial fertilizer (or use minimal amount)

2. clean the body of water manually (regulating amount of algae)

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point source vs non-point source

Back 28

point source - a big source of pollution (e.g. Minamata)

non-point source - farmers all contributing to pollution (e.g. Eutrophication)

Front 29

Population interactions

Back 29

Predation (wolves on moose), herbivory (Balsam Fir), parasitism (ticks), competition (wolves vs wolves), mutualism (moose eat balsam fir, balsam fir seeds fall off and attach to Moose's fur)

Front 30

EIAs (stages)

Back 30

Environmental impact assessment

1. baseline study

2. determine possible impacts on environment and society

3. setting up a monitoring system (to check if any impacts have occurred after the project/ developments have occurred)

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EIAs evaluation

Back 31

Strengths - Avoid extinction of indigenous species

- Minimizes or even avoids damage on environment and society

Weaknesses - Eliminating all environmental impacts of a large project (e.g. dam) is impossible

- local people are often excluded from the EIA, only government officials, not local representatives

Front 32

Ozone

Back 32

Front 33

1. Where is the ozone hole

2. What happens when there is too much UV radiation?

Back 33

1. the thinning of ozone is occurring over the poles

2. increased risk for skin-cancer, reduces GPP

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Ozone resolution

Back 34

1. use less fossil fuels (weakness - people are often unwilling to change lifestyle)

2. regulate emission of gases (e.g. CFCs) (Montreal protocol (1987), strength - significant reduction of chemical emissions in MEDCs, weakness - current rapidly growing countries India, China) were not included)

3. Use HCFC instead of CFC

Front 35

Gases that affect Ozone

Back 35

CFCs + UV --> Cl- (aerosoles)

MBr + UV --> Br- (pesticides)

NO + UV --> N (fossil fuels)

Front 36

Acid Rain: ph levels

Back 36

normal rain (pH 5-6)

acidic rain is more acidic (pH 4)

lower is more acidic

Front 37

Acid Rain: point source, non-point source

Back 37

point source = coal burning power plants

non-point source = cars, vehicles

Front 38

Acid Rain: pollutants, acids

Back 38

SO2 + H20 --> Sulphuric Acid

NOx + H20 --> Nitric Acid

Front 39

Effects of Acid Rain

In which areas of the world is acid rain a problem?

Back 39

soil - degradation

trees - damages leaves, limiting available nutrients for trees

lakes - becomes acidic, kills organism that cannot tolerate the acid

Acid rain is regional, not global. It is a problem in MEDCs (many coal power plants, cars, etc), but neighboring countries can be affected since prevailing wind can push acid rain to other countries.

Front 40

Acid Rain resolution

Back 40

1. use bikes instead of cars (weakness - people are often unwilling to change lifestyle)

2. 'scrubbers' that filter the exhaust from coal power plants, reduces SO2 emission (weakness - expensive)

3. catalytic converters, cleans the emission of NOx from cars (weakness - expensive)

4. adding limestone to lakes, which reacts with the acid and neutralizes it

Front 41

Urban air pollution/ Tropospheric Ozone: source and gases

Back 41

emitted from fossil fuels

1. Hydrocarbons e.g. Methane (CH4)

2. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

3. Nitrous Oxide (NO)

Front 42

Urban air pollution/ Tropospheric Ozone: reaction process

Back 42

1. NO + O2 --> NO2 (brown gas/ haze)

2. NO2 + sunlight --> split: NO + O

O + O2 --> O3

Front 43

Effects of tropospheric ozone

Back 43

- irritates eyes

- causes breathing problems

- attacks fabric and rubber

- attacks forests and crops

Front 44

Thermal Inversion

Back 44

There is more ozone in the valley since there is no mixing of air due to thermal inversion, since the cold air where the ozone is found in is trapped by the warm air.

Front 45

Domestic Waste: Types

Back 45

Biodegradable: food, wood, organic

Recyclable: paper, metal, glass, plastic

Hazardous: toxic

Front 46

Domestic Waste: management (strengths)

Back 46

compost - leads to production of nutrient rich soil)

recycle - sustainable, we can reuse waste

- reduce resource use

land fills, lined pits - cheap

- proper management of methane can lead to available natural gas

- development of reclaimed land

incineration - heat can be used for electricity

- reduces volume of waste

Front 47

Domestic Waste: management (weaknesses)

Back 47

compost - requires oxygen for bacteria

- expensive to manage

recycle - there is not always a use for recycled material

- expensive

- people have to be aware and contribute

land fills, lined pits - toxic waste leeches

- smells and increase in vermin

incineration - produces toxic fumes

- expensive to build incinerators

Front 48

System

Back 48

a system is an entity with at least two components that are linked and interact in some way

Front 49

Open system

Closed system

Isolated system

Back 49

Open systems allow energy or matter to enter or leave the boundaries of the system

Closed systems allow energy to enter or leave but matter is contained within the boundaries

Isolated systems do not allow either matter or energy to leave the system.

Front 50

Models definition

Back 50

a model is a simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of an object, system or concept

Front 51

First and Second laws of thermodynamics

Back 51

First Law: energy can neither be created or destroyed, merely changed from one form to another

Second Law: In any isolated system, entropy tends to increase. (The increase in entropy is seen as the loss of energy as heat, during transformation of energy)

Front 52

Equilibrium

Back 52

Equilibrium is a condition where forces or quantities are in balance.

Front 53

Positive Feedback

Negative Feedback

Back 53

Positive feedback leads to increasing change in a system and it accelerates deviation.

Negative Feedback is a self-regulating method of control leading to the maintenance of a steady-state equilibrium

Front 54

Trophic Level definition

Back 54

A position in a food chain or Ecological Pyramid occupied by a group of organisms with similar feeding mode

Front 55

Species definition

Back 55

A group of organisms that interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Front 56

Population definition

Back 56

A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time, and which are capable of interbreeding.

Front 57

Habitat definition

Back 57

The environment in which a species normally lives

Front 58

Niche definition

Back 58

The function or position of a species within an ecological community. An organism's ecological niche depends not only on where it lives but also on what it does

Front 59

Community definition

Back 59

a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat

Front 60

ecosystem definition

Back 60

a community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they inhabit

Front 61

diversity definition

Back 61

the number of different species and the relative numbers of individuals of each species

Front 62

biome definition

Back 62

a collection of ecosystems sharing similar climate conditions

Front 63

Measurement Lincoln Index

Back 63

mark, release and recapture technique

N = (M * m) / r

N = the total number in the population

M = the total number caught in the first sample

m = the total number caught in the second sample

r = total number recaptured that are marked in the second sample

Front 64

Estimating Biomass

Back 64

Biomass = mass of living material in the ecosystem

Dry weight measurement

Plants in a quadrat are dug up, dried and weighed

Dry weight per unit area is used to estimate average biomass per quadrat

Front 65

Measurement Simpson's Index

Back 65

Front 66

Carbon cycle

Back 66

Front 67

Nitrogen cycle

Back 67

(refer to notes page)

Front 68

Percentage difference

Back 68

Difference / original

Front 69

Photosynthesis inputs and outputs

Back 69

Inputs: CO2, H2O, chlorophyll and light

Outputs: organic matter and oxygen

Front 70

Respiration inputs and outputs

Back 70

Inputs: glucose and oxygen

Outputs: CO2, H2O, energy (as heat or useful energy)

Front 71

diversity definition

Back 71

the number of different species and the relative numbers of individuals of each species

Front 72

different types of pyramids

Back 72

pyramids of numbers

pyramids of biomass - represents the standing stock of each trophic level measure in units such as grams of biomass per square meter (g m^-2 or J m^-2)

pyramids of productivity - refer to the flow of energy through a trophic level and the decrease of energy along the food chain. (g m^-2 yr^-1 or
J m^-2 yr^-1)

Front 73

Productivity terms

Back 73

Primary Productivity

- Gross primary productivity (GPP): how much photosynthesis is taking place

- Net primary productivity (NPP): GPP - RSP. basically shows the growth/ biomass of the plant

Secondary Productivity

- Gross secondary productivity (GSP): feeding - feces

- Net secondary productivity (NSP): GSP - RSP

Front 74

Population curves

Back 74

Front 75

Population limiting factors (carrying capacity)

Back 75

Density Dependent

- food (quantity)

- disease

- space

Density Independent

- weather

Front 76

why carrying capacity cannot be applied to human population

Back 76

- human innovations (technology) e.g. healthcare

- humans can import food

- we use a range of resources

- humans are flexible, can substitute one resource to another

Front 77

K and R strategists graphs

Back 77

Front 78

K strategists

Back 78

e.g. Wolves

- fewer numbers of offspring

- slow development of the young

- high maternal care and investment

Front 79

R strategists

Back 79

e.g. crabs

- large number of offspring

- fast development of the young

- low maternal care and investment

Front 80

Succession

Back 80

Succession is the long-term change in the composition of a community

Front 81

Succession example

Back 81

Mount St. Helens (1980 eruption)

Climax sere - Fir and Hemlock forest

Intermediate sere - Red alder tree (nitrogen fixing tree, hence not reliant on soil)

Pioneer sere - Prairie lupin and pocket gophers (lived under ground hence not affected by eruption)

Front 82

Earth's water supply

Back 82

Ocean - 97.4%

Fresh water frozen as ice (e.g. in the arctic) - 2.0%

lakes, rivers, ground water - 0.6%

total of only 2.6% of fresh water

Front 83

Tokyo case study (water)

Back 83

made dams to increase water supply (some people were against it since it takes up space and affects their daily lives)

They had to develop technologically and made dams that act as flood control and also produce electricity (killing 3 birds with one stone)

environmental impact:

1. dams can flood the area

2. the water that is used for the industry becomes extremely deteriorated and pollutes nearby rivers and other bodies of water

Front 84

water cycle

Back 84

precipitation

interception

transpiration (evaporation of water from plant leaves)

infiltration (when soil soaks the water)

surface run off

Front 85

Kyoto Protocol

Back 85

signed in 1997

reduce the emission of CO2

allowed LEDCs to opt out. Caused problems since countries such as China soon rapidly developed and are now the biggest source of CO2.

Front 86

The Greenhouse effect

Back 86

1. UV radiation is emitted by the sun and travels towards earth

2. Some of the UV radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface but some is reflected (albedo effect), and transforms the UV radiation to Infrared radiation (heat)

3. Some of this infrared radiated passed the earth's surface and travels back towards space, but some is trapped by the atmosphere

4. Greenhouse gases worsen and trap more infrared radiation in the Earth's atmosphere, hence heating the earth.

overall average temperature has risen by 0.8 Celsius in past 100 years

Front 87

Greenhouse gases and origins

Back 87

CO2 - burning of fossil fuels

NO - burning of fossial fuels

CH4 (methane) - landfills

H20 (water vapor) - clouds, evaporation water, etc.

chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) - aerosols, refrigerators, etc.

Front 88

biodiversity definition and types

Back 88

The amount of biological or living diversity per unit area.

genetic diversity - the range of genetic material present in a gene pool or population of species

species diversity - the variety of species per unit area. This includes both the number of species present and their relative abundance

habitat diversity - The range of different habitats or number of ecological niches per unit area in a ecosystem.

Front 89

how species diversity/ sub-species are formed

Back 89

geographical isolation - two populations of one species are separated by a geographical barrier

Natural Selection - evolution and gene changing

Separate gene pools are formed - reproductive isolation

Front 90

Reasons to preserve biodiversity

Back 90

Ecological value (life sustaining) - e.g. pest control

Economic benefit - e.g. fishing industry

Aesthetic value - can be relaxing for people, tourism

Ethical - it's the correct thing to do

Front 91

loss of diversity in Madagascar

Back 91

Agriculture and grazing - slash and burn

Population pressure - population growth rate 3% (high), causing pressure on natural environment

Invasive species - Rats, cats, and mongooses, have devastated thepopulation of many organisms such as birds

Deforestation - for more space

Tourism - carbon footprint of tourists are harmful for fauna and flora

Front 92

Vulnerability of species (Tasmanian Tiger)

Back 92

Small population size - caused by hunting (bounty prices since they were viewed as pests)

Limited distribution - endemic species to Tasmania

High degree of specialization - The Tasmanian Tigers had an extremelyspecialized diet (only soft tissue of prey such as intestines)

Low reproductive potential - The Tasmanian Tigers do not survive in pacts andgroups (unable to find mating partners)

High in trophic level - high in food chain, hence small population

Front 93

NGOs

Back 93

Unites Nations Environment Program (UNEP) - who coordinates its environmental activities,assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policiesand practices

World Wide Fund (WWF) - Their mission is to stop the degradation of our planet's naturalenvironment, and build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature

Greenpeace - They act to change attitudesand behavior, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace by: Catalyzingan energy revolution to address the number one threat facing our planet:climate change.

Front 94

Criteria for protected area

Back 94

Shape - round, reducing edge effect

Corridors - allows migration

Proximity - if zones are separated, close proximity is better since is reduces human activity between the zones.

Size - large, reducing edge effect

Front 95

Measurements for terrestrial

Back 95

temperature - Celsius

Soil acidity - pH

Soil moisture - % water content

Front 96

Measurements for aquatic

Back 96

temperature - Celsius

Turbidity - cloudiness of water (NTU)

Amount of bacteria - Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Acidity - pH