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167 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Reductionism is... |
A bottom up approach, reducing something to its most basic components. |
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What common traits do natural systems share? |
Thermodynamics, evolving and being in a constant state of motion. |
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What is Hubble’s Law? |
That objects are moving apart in space, known as Redshift. |
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What is Doppler Shift? |
Law that states as objects come close and recede, sound waves are compressed and stretched out resulting in high and low frequency pitches. |
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What is a cosmic microwave? |
Invisible light waves can be detected by microwave satellites |
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Define nucleosynthesis. |
Creation of nuclei from pre-existing neurons |
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What is stellar nucleosynthesis? |
Creation of nuclei by stars fuelled by the fusion of hydrogen and helium. |
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How are stars formed? |
Large, dense clouds collapse upon themselves, which creates the conditions for cores of stars to form, core then ignites, collapses on itself, etc. |
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Define galactic nucleosynthesis. |
Cosmic rays collide with heavier atoms. |
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Define spallation. |
Impact with cosmic rays cause atoms to break apart. |
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What is plutonium synthesis? |
Elements can be created by combining other elements. |
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When was the solar system created? |
At 9 billion years |
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What is the modern nebular? |
A hypothesis for the origin of the solar system, stating that the Milky Way was filled with dust that created ice covered particles which collapsed under its own weight, creating planets through accretion. |
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What are the stages of modern nebular? |
1. Dust cloud made of helium and hydrogen collapses upon itself, forced to flatten into a disk with a bulge at the centre. 2. Disk cools and clears 3. T-Tauro terminal accumulation: grains and planetismals collide and build protoplanets 4. Solar system clears out through massive solar winds |
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Why are meteors important for the formation of earth? |
They continually bombarded earth which caused the planet to heat up and melt away, creating layers. |
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Why was the melting after meteors important for earths formation? |
Melting causes heavier elements to move toward core and lighter elements to move outward, forming earths crust. |
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Explain the layering of earth. |
There is the inner core, outer core, lower and upper mantles, and earth’s crust. |
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What is the chemical layering of earth? |
Core is metallic iron high in density. Mantle is a rocky unit, intermediate in density. Crust is a rocky unit, low in density. |
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What are the two types of crust? |
Oceanic and continental. |
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Explain the physical layering of earth. |
Inner core is solid, outer is molten. Mesosphere is solid aside from upper mantle; asthenosphere is solid but weak and plastic. Lithosphere is strong and rigid. |
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How old is the earth? |
4.4 billion years old approx. |
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Who was Alfred Wegenar? |
German meteorologist, formulated the continental drift. |
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What is continental drift? |
The idea of one super ocean (panthalassa) and one super continent (called Pangea) combining |
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Name some early evidence of plate tectonics. |
Fit of coastlines, similar sedimentary rocks on mountains that are now far apart, striations, evaporites forming in unusual places, same fossils found on widely separated continents |
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What is paleomagnetism? |
The study of earths magnetic field, record of magnetism at the time the rocks form |
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What is declination? |
The angle at which a compass needle forms between magnetic North Pole and geographic North Pole |
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What is inclination? |
When compass needle dips in vertical direction, where we are relative to the North Pole. |
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What did polar wander tell us? |
A) poles move freely or B) continents move freely |
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Define sea floor spreading. |
Derived by Harry Hest, new oceanic crust formed through volcanic activity showing that crust is moving away from ridge. |
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How thick is seafloor? |
1.3 km thick |
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Oldest volcanos are... |
Farthest from active hotspots |
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Mid ocean ridges are characterized by... |
High rate of heat flow, deep furrow that runs along central points of ridges |
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Deep sea trenches... |
Are oceanic crust being pushed back into the earth through subduction. This crust is denser so it is pushed beneath the less dense crust. |
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What is the lithosphere? |
Outermost, Rigid layer of mantle |
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Difference in continental and oceanic crust? |
Continental crust contains granite, oceanic contains mafic. |
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What is the slow creep process? |
Ascent of magma pushes existing ocean crust away from ridge, the colder crust sinks into asthenosphere and drags the rest of the plate with it. |
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Divergent |
Plate is pulled apart |
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Convergent |
Two plates come together |
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Shear |
Two plates slide past one another |
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What are the three types of convergent margins? |
Ocean-continent, ocean-ocean, continent-continent. |
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Atoms are... |
Made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. |
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Atomic number is... |
The amount of protons in an element’s nucleus. |
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Atomic mass is... |
Mass of protons and neutrons combined. |
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What is a chemical bond? |
When 2 atoms combine to form a molecule or compound |
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What are the two types of chemical bonds? Describe. |
Ionic: when an electron is exchanged from one atom to another (table salt) Covalent: 2 atoms come close together and share electrons (water) |
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What is a mineral? |
A naturally occurring material, inorganic solid with specific crystalline structure, chemical compounds made up of atoms |
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Define crystal lattice |
Specific crystalline form |
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Polymorphs are... |
Different lattice forms with same chemical composition. |
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Which are the two most abundant elements in the earth’s crust? |
Oxygen and silicone. |
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What are the three rock types? |
Igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. |
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What are the two types of igneous rock? |
Extrusive (rapid cooling outside of earth) and intrusive (magma solidifying within earth, slow cooking) |
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How are igneous rocks formed? |
Formed by cooling molten material. |
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How are metamorphic rocks formed? |
From pre-existing rocks with great heat and pressure |
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The four types of metamorphic rock are... |
Regional (transformation of deeply buried rocks) Contact (localized rocks bake surrounding rock) Hydrothermal (hot fluids pass through rocks and change them) Burial (metamorphic rock can be produced by burying it and being subjected to its own heat and pressure |
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What are sedimentary rocks? |
Rocks comprised of sediments dropped through water, ice or wind |
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Mud cracks... |
Tell us the ecosystem was not flourishibg |
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Ripples... |
Tell us there was a consistent flow of water |
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Cross beds... |
Tell us the flow direction of water |
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Define facies. |
Characteristics of a rock that distinguish it from other rocks deposited at the same time |
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What are the different depositional environments? |
Mountains, rivers, coal, deltaic, evaporate, carbonate and deep water |
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What are the different types of sedimentary environments? |
Continental, transitional, marine |
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Meandering channels are... |
Cross cutting channels with coarse particles |
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Braided channels are... |
Subchannels due to dumping of excess sediment in water |
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What does Walther’s Law state? |
Different kinds of sediments are deposited adjacent to one another as a result of lateral variation |
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Transgression means... |
The flooding of once dry land |
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Regression means... |
Draining of once dry land |
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What would be the earth’s temperature without the atmosphere? |
5 degrees C |
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What are Hadley cells? |
Convection loops that span from equator to subtropics. (Rising air is warm, sinking air is dry and cool) |
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Earth has high levels of... |
Nitrogen and oxygen |
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What is the hypothesis for the origin of the atmosphere? |
Higher xenon with parent isotope remaining in rocks |
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What are banded iron formations? |
Deep water marine deposits that are comprised of iron rich mineral layers |
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How old are BIFs? |
2-2.2 billion years old |
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What is corollary? |
Life is almost entirely responsible for the presence of free oxygen |
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What are the properties of the ocean? |
Photic zone: depth at which light can penetrate the ocean |
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What is the salinity average of the ocean? |
3.5% |
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Out of 1 K of water, how much is made of dissolved solids? |
34 grams |
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Is salinity low or high in mixed layer? |
Low in mixed layer, high in abyssal layer - rapid change referred to as halocline |
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What is thermocline? |
Temperature decreases with depth, salinity increases with depth |
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What is stratigraphy? |
The study of stratified rocks |
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Stratum refers to... |
Sediments accumulating in discrete layers |
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What is lithostratigraphy? |
Division of rock strata based on lithology (rock properties) |
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What is the hierarchy of rock strata? |
Bed, member, formation, group, supergroup |
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What is a bed in the hierarchy of stratigraphy? |
A lithologically distinct layer |
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What is a bed in the hierarchy of stratigraphy? |
A lithologically distinct layer |
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What is a member? |
A distinct part of a formation with many beds within it |
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What is a bed in the hierarchy of stratigraphy? |
A lithologically distinct layer |
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What is a member? |
A distinct part of a formation with many beds within it |
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What is a formation? |
Primary unit of a sequence. First part of name is a geographic feature or town nearby, second part refers to lithology of rock |
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What is a group? |
Formations that come together to form a group |
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What is a supergroup? |
Two or more groups coming together |
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What are the principles of Steno? |
Principle of superposition, original horizontality, original lateral continuity, cross cutting relationships and components |
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What is the principle of superposition? |
Rocks at the bottom are older and rocks at the top are younger |
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What is the principle of original lateral continuity? |
Rocks are laterally continuous unless terminated against a solid surface |
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What is the principle of horizontality? |
Rocks originally formed horizontally |
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What is the principle of cross cutting relationships? |
Objects already exist before they can be broken or cut |
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What is the principle of cross cutting relationships? |
Objects already exist before they can be broken or cut |
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What is the principle of components? |
A body of rock is younger than another body of rock from which any of its components derived |
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What are the four different types of unconformity? (Gaps in stratigraphic record) |
Nonconformity, angular unconformity, disconformity and paraconformity |
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What is nonconformity? |
This occurs when sedimentary rocks overlie igneous or metamorphic rocks |
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What is angular conformity? |
Rocks below are inclined or folded |
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What is disconformity? |
This is an erosional surface between two rocks |
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What is paraconformity? |
This is a bedding plain between two sedimentary rocks of different ages |
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What is a chronostratigraphic unit? |
A time rock unit |
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What is radiometric dating? |
Age determination derived from radioactive decay from elements within rocks |
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What are the two types of radioactive decay? |
Alpha (loss of alpha particle, atomic # drops 2) Beta (loss of beta particle - electron- proton is left behind, atomic # goes up 1) Beta particle capture (electron combines with proton to create neutron) |
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What are the chemical components of life? |
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids |
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The Miller Urey Experiment in 1953... |
Allowed organic material to form from inorganic material but required strongly reducing environments |
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What are the energy sources for warm ponds and deep sea vents? |
Sun or lightning and heat & chemical elements |
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How does Nasa describe life? |
A chemical system that sustains itself by self catalysis and is capable of undergoing Darwinian evolution. |
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What is similar about bacteria and archaea? |
They are both prokaryotes, both are cell membranes with DNA but without nucleus or organelles |
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What are eukaryotes? |
Has a nucleus that stores DNA, lots of organelles |
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When we’re first body fossils found? |
3.5 billion years ago |
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What are stromalites? |
Structures formed by layers by Cyanobacteria |
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What is the origin of the eukaryote? |
Eukaryote was consumed by prokaryotic cell, creating an endosymbiotic relationship with the host |
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What percentage of species has never been fossilized? |
85-97% |
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What is exceptional preservation? |
Soft tissues only fossilize well under certain exceptional conditions |
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What is phosphatization? |
Soft tissues are replaced by calcium phosphate |
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What is phosphatization? |
Soft tissues are replaced by calcium phosphate |
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What is silicification? |
Silica replication of biological structure of particular tissue |
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What is carbonaceous compression? |
Soft tissues are compressed and preserved as organic carbon film on a piece of rock |
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Taphonomy is the study of... |
What happens from the time an organism dies to when it is found |
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What is actuó-palaeontology? |
Looking at living systems to determine preservation potential, potential death and actual death |
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How do fossils trick us? |
Lazarus taxon - reappearance id organism we thought was extinct Elvis taxon - impersonator organism Zombie taxon - extinct taza occurs in younger sediments |
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What are phylogenetic systematics? |
Evolutionary classification of organisms |
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What is taxonomy? |
Principles of naming new organisms |
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Who was Carl Linnaeus and what did he develop? |
Considered the “grandfather of taxonomy” and created the Linnean Classification. |
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What is the Linnean Classification? |
Kingdom, phylum, mammals, family, genus, species |
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What is homology? |
Same structures in different species, derived from common ancestors |
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Homoplasy is... |
Similar structures that evolved independently. |
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What is apomorphy? |
New character inherited from most recent common ancestor |
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Symplesiomorphy is... |
Shared ancestral character |
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Synapomorphy is... |
Shared derived character |
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What is Cyanobacteria? |
Photosynthetic organisms that are 2.5 billion years old |
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What makes archaea and bacteria different? |
Archaea produce enzymes that bacteria doesn’t produce |
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What are primary producers? |
Organisms that are photosynthetic |
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What are protists? |
Assemblages that include many kinds of single celled organisms |
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What are the three kinds of unicellular algae? |
Dinoflagellates (whip like structures to move), diatoms (2 part skeleton of opal), calcareous nanoplankton (spherical cells with calcium carbonate shell) |
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What are bryophytes? |
Simple low growing plants that are non vascular |
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What are bryophytes? |
Simple low growing plants that are non vascular |
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Two types of phylogeny groupings are... |
Vascular and non vascular |
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Gymnosperms are |
The evolution of the seed, have vascular tissues, late Devonian to mid Cretaceous. |
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What are angiosperms? |
Flowering plants |
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What are invertebrates? |
Organisms that lack backbone |
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What are invertebrates? |
Organisms that lack backbone |
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What is the most abundant group of animals on the planet? |
Anthropods, consisting of insects, arachnids, crustaceans - 1.5 million species |
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What are annelids? |
Segmented worms with fluid filled cavities that serve as skeletons |
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What is a defining character of the anthropod? |
Jointed limbs |
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What is Scala Naturae? |
Chain of being (rocks, plants, animals, humans, saints) |
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What is Linnaean’s principle of plentitude? |
Species in their present day form have always been this way and have never changed and will never go extinct |
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What is Linnaean’s principle of plentitude? |
Species in their present day form have always been this way and have never changed and will never go extinct |
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What did anaxaminder discover? |
Water is the origin of life |
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What did zhuangzi discover? |
Life changes in response to environment |
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What did al jahiz discover? |
Animals transform in a struggle for existance |
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What did Lamarck discover? |
Organisms can change |
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Who discovered the Galapagos observations and what were they? |
Darwin observed birds geographically in subtle populations |
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What are the two modes of speciation? |
Allopathic (physical separation of sub populations) and sympatric (segments of population become isolated) |
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How many species are currently alive today? |
1 in 1000 species that ever existed is currently alive today |
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Which US president had a sloth named after him? |
Thomas Jefferson |
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What are the types of extinction? |
Local (disappearance of a local animal), global (disappearance of an animal off earth), background (ongoing extinction) and mass |
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What are the types of extinction? |
Local (disappearance of a local animal), global (disappearance of an animal off earth), background (ongoing extinction) and mass |
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When was the Ordovician? |
440-450 million years ago resulted in devastating effects on marine communities, second most |
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When was “the great dying” or Permian? |
252 million years ago, largest extinction ever (96% of marine and 70% of terrestrial) |
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When was “the great dying” or Permian? |
252 million years ago, largest extinction ever (96% of marine and 70% of terrestrial) |
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When was Triassic? |
201 million years ago, 48% marine community death, accumulation of 17 million years of extinction |
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When was Cretaceous? |
65 million years ago, continents divided, non avian dinosaurs disappeared and huge impact on aquatic realm |
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When was Cretaceous? |
65 million years ago, continents divided, non avian dinosaurs disappeared and huge impact on aquatic realm |
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When was Devonian? |
360-375 million years ago |
