Cognition 1

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Cognitive psychology

Back 1

Scientific study of higher mental processes that underlie Behavior

Evaluates how people obtain, process, store, and utilize information

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Aristotle

Back 2

"Originator of psychology"

Greek

Rationalist

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Rationalist

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Answers through reason and thought alone

Ex: Hypothesis formation

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Bystander effect

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chance of being helped while in distress decreases as headcount Rises. Responsibilities taken as a percentage not a whole

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Empirical

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Data and observation driven

Ex: experiment portion of scientific process

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Wundt

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Founded first empirical psychology lab in 1879 @ Leipzig University

Father of scientific psychology

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Structuralism

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Titchener (worked for Wundt)

Attempts to discover basic structure and elements of Consciousness, uses introspection

First American "psychological school of thought" & developed at Cornell

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Introspection

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Looking inward

Problems: biased because Observer = participant; lack depth of field (infants/animals can't introspect); emotional charge is different between introspection and retrospection

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Retrospection

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evaluation of a memory

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Functionalism

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Aspects of cognition that help with survival

Heavy Darwin influence

W. JAMES

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Behaviorism

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Data taken only on observable Behavior

Learning= Engaged Behavior & direct result (reinforcement/punishment)

WATSON, 1913

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Cognitive Psychology began....

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Sept 11 1956 @ MIT

MILLER: "The magical number 7 plus or minus 2: the limits on our capacity for processing information

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Savings Score

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Time difference between learning sessions to acquire a skill and "perfect" the skill. Also demonstrates The Forgotten Curve

Ex:

Learning Round 1 = 40 minutes of learning time

Learning Round 2 = 30 minutes of learning time

Savings Score = 10 minutes

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W. James argues....

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Streams of Consciousness are fluid and changing

Direct behavior observation is a moment in time but evaluating functions of consciousness is key

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Forgotten Curve

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Forgetting things is a steep (exponential?) drop, then remains gradual in decline

(as opposed to slow degenerative forgetting)

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Human Factors Engineering & Ergonomics

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Started with WW2; focused on man's better utilization of tools/machines via cognitive factors

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U. Neisser

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Coined "cognitive psychology" with paper titled cognitive psychology 1967

Father of cognitive psychology

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Cognitive Maps

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TOLMAN, Demonstrates that organism can mentally picture space and relative position, making maze choices based on previous information

Star-Maze arm preference debunks behavioralisms strict consequent requirement

Demonstrates latent learning

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Latent learning

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Reinforcement or punishment or direct result is not required to learn

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C. Hall

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Influence by Pavlov's scientific objectivity as a mine engineer

Applied engineering background to start Mathematical Psychology and developed hypothetico-deductive method

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Hypothetico-deductive method

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Created equation to predict Behavior

Tested and revised equation for specific trait measures

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Operational Definition

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Quantifying qualitative data

Ex: Hunger (as measured in time from last meal)

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Bandura

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Bobo doll experiments

Demonstrated Observational learning

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Observational learning

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Individual behaviors seen, then mimicked

Can directly change behaviors of others

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Cognition

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Process of: thinking perception imagining speaking acting planning

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Cognitive neuroscience

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Bridges cognitive science and cognitive psychology

(biology + neuroscience)

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Mind-body problem

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How does a physical substance (brain chemicals) give rise to sensation, thought, and emotion

Dualism foundation

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Dualism

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Decartes proposed mind and brain are two different substances with interaction

[non-physical & immortal] + [physical and mortal] processed through pineal gland

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Dual aspect theory

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Spinoza theorized Mind and Brain are two levels of description of same elements/substance

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Reductionism

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Mind & Concepts of cognition will boil down to biology and Neuroscience with enough advancement in the field

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Phlogiston

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17th century flammable substance released when burned (any object)

Calls back to Earth fire water and air as elements

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Phrenology

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Gall & Spurzheim theorize different regions of the brain do different tasks for different behaviors, and physical skull shape can determine cognitive and personality differences

27 "organs"; regions increase strength with use and bumps Define strength, dips Define weakness/lack there of trait

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Functional specialization

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Different regions of the brain do different tasks and are specialized for different functions

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Cognitive neuropsychology

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Study of brain damage to theorize about normal cognition

Broca 1861

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Information processing approach

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Behavior described as a sequence of cognitive stages

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Interactivity

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Later stages of processing can start before earlier stages are finished

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Top-down processing

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Influence that Late processing stages have on early stages

Ex: memories influence on perception

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Parallel processing

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Different information processed simultaneously

Ex: sound and visual stimuli

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Neural network model

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Computational model in which info processing occurs using many interconnected nodes

Node- basic units of neural network and activates with response from other node activations

* weight or responsiveness is how strongly connected nodes are

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Nervous system overview

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Central nervous system:

Spine and brain

Peripheral nervous system:

Somatic- voluntary

Autonomic-

Sympathetic- fight or flight

Parasympathetic- homeostasis

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Afferent/Efferent pathway

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Afferent is input sensory neuron

Efferent is output motor neuron

*A reflex doesn't require brain activity

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Parts of a neuron (6)

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Dendrite

Soma- cell body/ decision thresholds

Axon- "transmission line"

Myelin Sheath- transmission speed

Synaptic Knobs

Nucleus

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Myelin Sheath

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Increases transmission speed

made of adipose

not all neurons have myelin

Nodes of ranvier divide individual sheaths

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Synapse

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Gap between synaptic knobs and dendrites& transmits chemical signals into another neuron

Reuptake- knob reabsorbs unused chemicals

SSRI- increases neurotransmitters in synapse; agonistic drug

Antihistamine- blocks/decreases chemical synthesis; antagonistic drug

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Schizophrenia has this chemical imbalance

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Too much Dopamine

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Parkinson's has this chemical imbalance

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Too little Dopamine

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Autism has this chemical imbalance

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Excessive serotonin

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ADHD has this chemical imbalance

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Too little dopamine and norepinephrine

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Depression has this chemical imbalance

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Too little serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine

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Hormones

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Chemical messages in bloodstream. influences growth, reproduction, metabolism, etc

"Secondary communication" interacts with the nervous system

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Angiogram

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Uses X-ray and dyes to identify blood vessels

Commonly used for heart

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Computerized axial tomography

CAT

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X-rays for identifying structure

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Positron emission tomography

PET

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Radioactive markers in glucose to identify activated brain areas

Recording/ INVASIVE

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Magnetic resonance imaging

MRI

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Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to see structure

fMRI- structure & functional; PET + MRI

Recording/Non-invasivie

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Magnetoencephalogram

MEG

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Real-time brain measuring

Measures magnetic change in neurons when fired

Recording/non-invasive

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Transcranial magnetic stimulus

TMS

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Uses transient magnetic fields to stimulate or depressed brain activity at a focus point

Lesions without lesioning; STIMULATING/non-Invasive

rTMS- repeater; treats neurological and psychological disorders; theoretical pacemaker for the brain

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Sensation

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Sensory experience based on neural impulses from receptors

Raw data input

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Perception

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Elaboration, interpretation, and assignment of meaning to sensory inputs

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Psychophysics

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Relationship of physical stimulus and physical perception

Interested in thresholds of sensory detection, phenomena like color perception and Signal detection Theory

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Signal detection Theory

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Detection of stimuli depends on intensity vs. physical/ psychological state of individual

Sensory testing method designed to test thresholds.

Hit

Miss

False alarm

Correct rejection

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Sensory adaptation

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Diminishing sensitivity of sensory input

Similar to but =/= to habituation

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Rod (vision)

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In periphery, light sensitive and assist with low light and movement detection

100-130 million

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Cone (vision)

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In fovea; structures for color vision and acute vision

6-7 million

Men suffer color blindness because X chromosome linked.

5-8% of males .5% females, native people mostly unaffected

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Electroencephalogram

EEG

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Records brain electric activity

H. Berger

Recording/non-invasive

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Resolution types (2)

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Accuracy in which an event is measured

Temporal- when it happens

Spatial- where it happens

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Modularity

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Theory that cognitive processes are restricted to specific regions of the brain because of the type of information processed

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Domain Specificity

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Specific areas of the brain ONLY process specific information

Modularity demonstrates this

As opposed to:

Central systems- information is processed in non-specific areas

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Visual agnosia

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Can see objects & features but fails to recognize the object holistically

Ex: person identified glove is cloth, and has curvature, but can't identify it as a "glove"

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Prosopanosia

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Visual agnosia with faces

Ex: can identify big teeth as a recognizable trait of brother, but can't recognize brother from face alone

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Sensory receptors

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Detect and convert stimuli from energy -> neural impulse

Sensory transduction- the process in which signal is generated

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Subliminal perception

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Unconscious perception of stimuli that are too weak to exceed absolute thresholds

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Absolute threshold

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Minimum amount of detectable stimulation

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Webbers Law

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Fraction of change required to detect differences in stimuli.

Works best of midrange stimuli, not extremes

"Just Noticeable Differences"

Ex: how small of a weight is added to weight you're already carrying to be noticeable

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Vision

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Sensing objects by light reflected off the object and into eyes

Visible Spectrum- portion of electromagnetic spectrum we call "light".

Red 750nm <--> 300nm Blue/Violet

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Young helmholtz Theory

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Trichromatic theory developed by Young, helmholtz expanded idea

idea that there are three primary colors of light (blue green red) and three cone types to sesnitive to each

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Opponent process Theory

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Cones handle two colors. This Theory accounts for neural processing aspects

Blue yellow, Red Green, Black white

Alternate Definition: Brain counters strong positive or negative Emotion by evoking opposite response

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Sclera

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Tough white outer membrane of eye

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Cornea

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Transparent round area allowing light into eye.

Exterior surface of eye

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Lens

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Transparent structure behind the pupil focusing light for retina.

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Retina

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Light-sensitive inner membrane of eye that has receptor cells for vision

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Accommodation

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Muscles Flex the lens curvature to focus an image

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Myopia

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Nearsightedness

focal point of far objects is in front of retina.

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Hyperopia

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Farsightedness

focal point of close objects Falls Beyond retina

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Optic nerve

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Conveys visual input to the brain

formed from axons from ganglion cells.

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Fovea

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Small area at Center of eye containing only cones and provides most acute vision.

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Receptive field

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Retina area that feeds input into ganglion cells

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Blind-spot

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Point where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball.

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Smooth Pursuit movement

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Eye movement controlled by ocular muscles that keeps objects focused in fovea

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Optic chasim

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Point under frontal lobe which some axons from each optic nerve cross to opposite sides of the brain.

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Visual cortex

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Occipital lobe area for processing visual input

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Photopigments

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Chemicals allowing rods and cones to generate neural impulses

Rhodopsin and Iodopsin

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Dark adaptation

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Process of increasing light sensitivity in low-light scenarios

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Afterimage

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Persistent image after exposure and removal of image

due to fatigue

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Color blindness (3)

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Inability to distinguish between colors, most often red and green.

Trichromat= full color vision

Dichromat= normal cone numbers but lacks idospin

Monochromat= black and white

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Figure ground perception

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Distinguishing of a object (figure) from the surrounding (ground)

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Gestalt principles (4)

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Closure- filling in the gaps of form.

Proximity- stimuli close together tend to perceive the same form.

Similarity- similar forms are generalized as the same form.

Continuity- visual grouping of forms of stimuli that follow patterns.

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Feature detector Theory

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We construct perceptions of stimuli from neural activity that are sensitive to specific features of those stimuli.

Ex: ***

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Illusionary Contours

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Perception of non-existent Contours as if they were edge of real objects.

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Depth perception

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Ability to judge distance of objects

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Binocular cues (2)

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Depth perception using both eyes

Disparity- degree of difference between image as focused on each retina

Convergence- the degree in which eyes turn inwards to focus

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Monocular cues (3)

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Depth perception with one eye

Accommodation- change of lens shape to focus

Motion parallax- perception of passing objects gets fast the closer they are

Pictorial- size, proximity, & perspective to create depth on art (2D surface)

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Monocular pictorial categories (6)

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Occlusion

linear perspective

elevation

shade pattern

texture gradient

aerial perspective

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Size consistency

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Perpetual process that makes objects appear the same size despite retinal image size

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Shape consistency

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Perpetual process that makes object appear the same shape from every angle.

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Brightness consistency

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Perpetual process that makes objects appear the same brightness at all light levels relative to other objects.

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Visual illusion

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Misperception of physical reality caused by misapplication of visual cue

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Moon Illusion

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"Apparent distance hypothesis"

Perception that the Moon is larger while at the horizon.

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Audition

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Sense of hearing

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Tympanic membrane

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Eardrum

membrane separating outer and middle ear vibrating with sound waves

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Cochlea

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Spiral fluid-filled structure that has receptor cells for hearing

Inner ear

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Basilar membrane

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Runs length of cochlea and houses receptor cells for hearing

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Auditory nerve

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Conducts nerve impulses from cochlea and transfers it to brain

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Auditory cortex

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Part of temporal lobes that process sound

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Ossicles

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Bones of middle ear

Malleus incus stapes

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Pitch perception

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Highness or lowness of a sound

closely matches sound frequency

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3 hearing theories

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Place theory-Hair cells on basilar membrane are most responsive to particular frequencies

Frequency Theory- basilar membrane vibrates as a whole

Volley Theory- sound waves cause auditory neurons to fire in volleys

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Loudness perception

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Intensity of a sound

closely matches sound amplitude

Measured in decibels

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Conduction deafness

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Hearing loss caused by blockage of canal, eardrum damage, or distorted ossicles.

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Nerve deafness

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Hearing loss caused by hair cell damage, auditory nerve axon damage, or auditory cortex damage

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Timbre

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Subjective experience that identifies sound quality

corresponds to its mixture of wavelengths (whole octaves pair well to sound good)

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Sound localization

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Process in which one finds the source of the sound

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Olfaction

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Sense of smell for Airborne molecules

Olfaction epithelium --> olfaction bulb --> olfaction nerve

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Aromatherapy

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Use of fragrance to increase cognitive ability or psychological health

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Pheromone

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Odor Chemicals secreted by an animal that has an effect on another

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Gustation

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Sense of taste

detect molecules dissolved in saliva

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Taste buds

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Structures lining tongue grooves that have taste receptors

Sweet salty sour bitter

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Skin senses (3)

Back 127

Touch

temperature

pain

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Somatosensory cortex

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Area of parietal lobe processing touch

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Gate control theory

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Pain can be blocked by closing a neural gate in the spinal cord.

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Placebo

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Inactive substances that may induce effects of the drug substituted

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Acupuncture

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Pain relief technique that relies on fine needle pricks, releasing endorphins

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Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)

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Electrical stimulation on specific body sites relieving pain through endorphin release

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Kinesthetic sense

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Joint positioning, muscle tension, arm and leg movement

Participates in protection from injury

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Vestibular sense

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Head positioning and maintaining balance

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Otolith organs

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Saccule and utricle

organs detecting linear horizontal/vertical movement of head

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Semicircular canals

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Curved vestibular organs of the inner ear that detect rotation of the head

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Extrasensory perception (esp)

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Ability to perceive events without sensory receptors.

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Parapsychology

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Study of ESP, psychokinesis, and related ********

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Mental telepathy

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Ability to perceive others thoughts.

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Clairvoyance

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Ability to perceive objects or events without sensory contact.

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Precognition

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Ability to perceive future events

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Deja vu

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Feeling that an experience in the present has been experienced in the past and feels like you're able to anticipate what's next

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Psychokinesis

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Ability to control objects with the mind

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Brunner and Goodman- cardboard coins

Back 144

Children estimate size of coins and identical size cardboard discs. Estimates were very accurate for cardboard discs, but inaccurate when actual coins are used due to value of coin impacting perception.

Lower SES children overestimate even more than kids with more $

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Wesp- Dart target estimate

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1. Dart dropped on board and number of attempts to hit Center counted.

2. Bullseye size then estimated.

Fewer attempts = larger estimated target size

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Filter Theory

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Selective attention

Ability to filter out anything but focal Target.

Broadbent, Treisman, Deutsch & Deutsch

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Capacity Theory

Back 147

Divided attention

Ability to pay attention to multiple stimuli simultaneously. Limited "resource pool" to function with

Kahneman and Wickans

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Broadbent filter Theory

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All or none stimuli filter that can switch stimuli that is blocked

Early selection function; Split span task applies; sensory->filter->perception->response

--> [] --> [] []

--> [] --------->[]--> R

--> [] --> [] []

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Split span task

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Two different numbers spoken in each ear at the same time. Produces ear by ear report where only one set is remembered If interval is less than 1.5 seconds.

.5 sec rate

Left: 1-3-7

Right: 6-4-2

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Treisman filter theory

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Attenuated filter lets trickle of stimuli through, early selection function, "switch ear experiment"

sensory->filter->perception->response

--> [] -->[]~~ []

--> [] ---------->[]--> R

--> [] --> []~~ []

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Deutsch & Deutsch filter Theory

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Late selection function

sensory->perception->filter->response

--> [] --> [] --> []

--> [] --> []-----------> R

--> [] --> [] --> []

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Gray and Wedderburn

Back 152

Undergraduate students performing a split span task but altered.

Tested a combination of words and letters at a half-second rate and found ppl could "ear by ear" report.

Ex:

L- Duck 7 Pie

R- 7 Ball 2

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Switch ear experiment.

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Story 1 in left ear to be shadowed.

Story 2 in right ear to be ignored.

Patients asked to Shadow left ear take several seconds to readjust to start repeating Story 2 after Story 1 in left ear is switched to the right ear.

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Shadowing

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Word for word, real time repetition of audio

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Inattentional blindness

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Failure to see stimulus because of lack of attention

early and late selection are both used and depends on stimuli inputs.

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Change blindness

Back 156

Inability to detect change in a scene, even if Patient is looking right at it.

Can take up to 25 double takes to identify change in a photo.

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Priming

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A limited capacity system that prepares you for a stimulus.

Expectation v. Stimulus based

Neutral- no effect on response times

Mislead- No effect on low validity.

Negative effect on high validity

Primed- decrease of response time due to warm-up and expectation effect

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Spatial attention

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Ability to focus on particular position in space and Primed for any stimulus in that position.

"Search-light" style observation

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Two types of priming

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Expectation based- Has a large magnitude and needs .5 second development. Heavy resource use

Stimulus based- instant and "free" of resource pool

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Unilateral neglect syndrome

Back 160

Ignores all input from one side of body due to brain damage. Only applies to spatial attention.

PIGPEN appears as PEN

Washes only 1/2 of face

Eats only (right or left) 1/2 of plate

Once object is focused on, spatial placement doesn't matter. Red and blue light rotation demonstrates object-based attention

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Divided attention

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Person can perform concurrent tasks successfully but only if it's within cognitive "resource pool" budget.

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Response selector

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Mental mechanism for selection and initiation of responses

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Executive control

Back 163

Task General mental resource to avoid interference/distraction.

Maintains goal focus and inhibits habit or auto response.

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Working memory capacity

Back 164

Increases executive control

prefrontal cortex is goal-focused

anterior cingulate is conflicting response resolution.

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Practice

Back 165

Decreases Demand on Executive control and response selector

Practiced tasks are easier and better in quality

Move from controlled response --> automatic response

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Controlled tasks

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Novel task that requires flexibility in approach

Requires significant "resource pool"

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Automatic tasks

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Highly familiar, stimulus triggered response

Automaticity- Automatic tasks can be easily integrated with other tasks.

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Stroop interference

Back 168

Mental reflex working against you

Ex: GREEN written in red ink. You must identify ink color and overcome reading reflex/automatically