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119 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Media Effect
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Effects of communication mediated by the mass media
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Interpersonal vs Mass Communication
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Interp: 1-on-1, Two-way; Direct Cmn
Mass: 1- to many people; one way; Mediated Cmn |
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Mediated Communication
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Communication passed through many people ie: The Game Telephone
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Why are we concerned about mass media effects?
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- reality vs media content
- media content and effect outcome |
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Shannon- Weaver Model
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Linear model based on signal transmission
info- transmitter-channel-receiver-destination |
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Weakness of Shannon-Weaver models
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no feedback, no active roll of an audience
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Westley & MacLean's Model
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Linear mode:l for understanding mass deiated communication considering media organizations and production aspects
- gatekeepers, feedback, events |
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Gatekeeper
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choosers of what they want to send or not to send; they have a selection
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Schramm Model
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Interactive Model:
Message Encoder Decoder Interpretation Interpretor Decoder Encoder Message The Communicator is a sender and recipient, two way interaction |
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Hard Lasswell Model
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Who says what through which channel to whom and with what effects
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The rise of Practical Concerns of Media Effects
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Propaganda (WWII)
Advertising "New" Media: radio, internet, TV, film |
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The Mode of Causal Reasoning: Everyday concerns and Practical Issues
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Time spent watching TV- - Obesity
Violent Video Games- - Violent Behavior Live Coverage of the War- - Support for the war |
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Characteristics of Social Science Research
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Systematic and objective
Logical toward understanding empirical (testable) |
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3 Conditions of Causality
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Correlation
Time Order Absence of 3rd Variable |
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Correlation
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2 variables that are related and have a positive or negative correlation
EX: amount of TV watched and Condition of Causality exam scores - TV view negatively correlates with exam scores (More tv=lower exam scores) |
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Time Order
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Condition of Causality
Cause must precede the effect |
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Absence of 3rd Variable
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Condition of Causality
3rd variables are other variables that could effect the two variables in question EX: Fighting with parents on the day of exam would effect the exam scores- not the amount of TV viewing |
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Types of Research Methods
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1. Content Analysis
2. Survey 3. Experiment 4. Quasi- Experiment |
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Content Analysis
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Research Method
systematic observation and analysis |
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Survey
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Research Method
Questionairre of their attitude or behavior - must have random sampling, standardized, self- report |
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Advantages of Surveys
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generalization (can apply to many ppl)
Flexibility (measures many variables) |
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Disadvantages of Surveys
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Internal Validity (lying)
Artificiality |
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Purpose of Experiments
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to uncover or isolate the cause
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Advantages of Experiments
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isoloating the cause and effect
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Disadvantages of Experimnets
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Narrow Focus
Limited gneralizability (due to non random sampling) isolating short term effects but not long term effects |
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DEF of Social Learning:
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-learning that occurs as a result of social interaction
- Learning is viewed in terms of products and processes |
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Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory
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- People can observe by observing others (modeling)
- Learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to internal change -Behavior eventually becomes self-regulated - Reinforcement/Punishment have indirect effects on learning and beh |
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Reinforcement and Punishment indirects effects on learning and behavior
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-we have expectations about the likely consequences of behavior based on experience
- we are influenced by our experiences - expectations influence our decisions - the nonoccurence of an expected consequence may be reinforcement or punishement in and of itself |
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2 Types of Modeling
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live model
symbolic model |
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live model
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real people we observe doing something
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symbolic model
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real or fictional characters portrayed in books, films, etc
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How does Modeling Affect Behavior (4)
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Observational learning effect
response facilitation effect response inhibition effect response disinhibition effect |
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Observational Learning Effect
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Observer acquires new behavior after watching someone else do it
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Response facilitation Effect
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Observer displays pervious learned behavior more frequently after watching someone else do it
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Response Inhibition Effect
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Observer displays previously learned behavior less frequently after watching someone else do it
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Response Disinhibition Effect
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Observer displays a previously forbidden behavior more frequently after seeing someone else do it without adverse consequence
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Social Learning as a Communication Process
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information can be conveyed through physical demonstrations pictorial representation or verbal description
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Social Learning Theory's key concepts
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1. Imitation
2. Representation of the behavior 3. Rehersal 4. Reproduction 5. Reinforcement |
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Imitation of the SLT
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Behavior Acquisition
- similarities between Observer and the model - Identification with the model |
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Representation of Behavior of the SLT
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Physical - Direct observation
Symbolic- Textual or imagery |
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Rehersal of the SLT
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Encoding
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Reproduction of the SLT
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Behavior Instigation
- Abilities to act out bc of the memory of behavior - Ability to translate one's behavior into a similar other and act it out Motivation to do so |
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Reinforcement of the SLT
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Consequences or anticipated Conseq.
- Positive= reward - Negative= punishment |
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Mean World Syndrome
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Believe America to be a dangerous society
- from watching violent films/media that influences ppl perceptions of reality - Heavy TV Viewers believe the world's more dangerous because they are exposed to it more. |
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Cultivation Hypothesis
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How does the media representations shape our beliefs about the world (culture)
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3 Components of the Cultivation Hypothesis
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1. Institutional Process anaylsis
2. Message System Analysis 3. Cultivation Analysis |
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Key Concept in Cultivation Analysis
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Cultivation= long term, gradual and cummulative cognitive effects on people perceptions of reality
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Standard Methods of Research to show cultivation effects
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A. General strategy
b. Content Analysis c. Surveys |
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General Strategies of Research of cultivation effects
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- document the TV message system
- demonstrate the discrepancies between TV and real World - demonstrate the realistic accept of heavy and light TV viewers |
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Content Analysis of Research of Cultivation Effects
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-Random sampling of all prime time TV Shows over many seasons
- Coding violent acts, demographics of characters - Creating violence index |
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Cultivation differential
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Difference in reality perception between light and heavy TV viewers
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Findings of Cultivation Theory
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- TV violence creates mean world syndrome, crime likelihood
- There are standardized roles and behaviors - Occupational tendencies (white = Dr.s blacks= crminial) - Body Image - Gender and Age role stereotypes |
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Critiques of Cultivation Theory
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Doob and MacDonald: TV has no influences but the real world effects peoples perceptions of reality
- Fear of crime is higher in high crime areas - TV viewing is not a direct cause of ppl's fear - Convergence and contrast effects |
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Gerbner's Specifications of Cultivation Theory
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1. Mainstream Homogenizations:
- varied cultural social and political characteristics are diminished or even absent fromt eh responses of Heavy TV viewers in the same group - Diverse Groups are more similar at high levels of TV Use 2.Resonance:Divergence - cultivation effects greater when real-world events support the media reality - Whenever direct experience is in agreement of the message from the TV- mess are reinforced/resonated and cultivation effect is amplified. |
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Flaws in the Cultivation Theory
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Does TV Viewing really cause beliefs
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Shrumm Priming and Cultivation
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Shrumm found that Heavy TV view give faster responses to cultivation type questions
Heavy TV Viewers have faster accessibility to reality perceptions |
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Flaws Priming and Cultivation
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TV Messages Uniforms?
TV Viewing non-selective?- different motivation leads to different Genres |
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Bottom Line of the Cultivation Theory
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- Researchers still need to identify the cognitive processes in cultivation effects
- Cultivation still requires methodological and conceptual refinement and empirical confirmation |
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Milgram Experiment
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Student gives voltage punishment and believes they are causing someone else pain experiment
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Suspected Effects of Media Violence
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Behavioral: Disinhibition, violent or criminal behavior, aggressive tendencies
Perception: social acceptability, means of exercising power Attitudes: Densensitization, endorsements of violence, negative outlook toward vulnerable groups Arousal: physiological excitation, fright reaction |
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Theoretical Explanations of Media Violence (4)
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1. Social Learning : ppl can learn new behavior through overt reinforcement/punishment via observed behavior (model, imitated)
2. Cultivation 3. Priming: cues activate aggression related ideas 4. Excitation Transfer: Arousal- - Violent and aggressive reactions |
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Media Violence Research Methods (6)
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1. Lab Experiments
2. Field Experiments 3. Correlations Surveys 4. Longitudinal Panel Studies 5. Natural Experiments 6. Intervention Studies |
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Lab Experiments for Media Violence Research
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Strictly Controlled and designed to show causal relationship
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Field Experiments for Media Violence Research
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take place among children in a institutional setting this avoids the problem of unnaturalness
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Correlation Studies for Media Violence Research
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surveys conducted to find a correlation between consumption of violent media and aggressive behavior
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Example of Correlation Studies for Media Violence Research
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-viewers asked to see what TV shows they watch regularly
- shows rated for violent content - 2 measures are correlated to see if there is any realtionship between content and aggressive behavior BUT these studies ultimately cannot demonstrate a causal relationship with certaintly |
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Longitudinal Studies for Media Violence Research
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Identify relationship between consumption of violent fare and anti-social attitudes and behaviors that develop OVER TIME
- exposure to media violence has a cumulative effect over time |
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Natural Experiments for Media Violence Research
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a longitudinal assessment is conducted in a natural setting where TV is being used to introduced into the community for the first time
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Intervention Studies for Media Violence Research
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designed to inoculated viewers against the harmful effects of TV viewing.
- attempt to alleviate the negative effects - increased TV literacy may reduce negative effects |
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Def. of Violence
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the overt expression of physical force against self or other compelling action against one's will
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Measuring Violent Content
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Content Analysis used to determine the amount of violent content in TV programs
- Violence profiles are developed for each TV program based on the amount of violent content. |
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5 Key Elements that make people susceptible to the negative effects of media violence
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1. a perpertrator who's an attractive role model
2. violence seems justified 3. violence that goes unpunished 4. minimal conseq to the victims 5. violence that seems realistic to the viewer. |
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3 Levels of impact of media violence
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1. behavioral
2. affective 3. cognitive |
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5 major mechanisms through which behavior effects may occur from media violence viewing
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1.Catharsis
2. Arousal 3. Disinhibition 4. Imitation 5. Desensitization |
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Catharsis
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viewers vent their aggressive impluses harmlessly through viewing televised violence
ex: # of running violent movies ina community was negatively related to crime rate |
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Arousal (media violence)
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a behavior effect from viewing media violence
- viewing violent content may enhance aggression and anger dur to the excitment or emotional arousal |
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Disinhibition (media violence)
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viewers grow more accustom to seeing violence on TV and become less inhibited by social sanctions against committing violent acts
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Imitation (media violence)
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EX. Bandura's Bobo doll
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Desensitization (media Violence)
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viewers repeatedly watch violent acts on TV and become less sensitive to seeing violence and more likely to accept real life violence
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Physical Effects of Media Violence
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Physiological Measures:
- Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Skin Temp. |
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Affective or Emotional Effects of Media Violence
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emotional arousal or excitation from exposure to violent media content may transfer to later violent behavior
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Wober and Gunter findings of media violence viewing
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a person's perception of the world can be mitigated by the levels of judgements
- program specificity - personal judgements about crime - viewers perceptions of interpretations -situations specificity |
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Coping strategies
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- help children reduce their fear
- change's child's mental conceptions of the frightening content - Rating and information labels |
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def of sexual content
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all types of media that either shows or implies sexual acts or make sexual reference or sexual innuendos
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Greenberg and Busselle content analysis of soap operas
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code categories of sexual activity
among 648 sex act participants (married vs unmarried, faithful to spouse and unfaithful, divorced, teens and 20s vs over 40) |
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The extent of sexual content in the media (5)
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Music Videos
x-rated videos tv magazines R-rated movies |
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Exposure to highly explicit sexual content may result in 3 things?
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sexual arousal
changes in attitude and values behavioral changes |
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Sexual arousal is measured by
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rated by viewers of their sexual arousal after seeing content
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Studies have shown that sexual arousal can be ______
EX:? |
Learned
EX: showed men photos of nude women paired with boots and taught them to be aroused by only seeing the sight of boots |
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What causes viewers to report less sexual satisfaction with their intimate partners?
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heavy consumption of porn
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Changes in Attitude and Values happens because of what?
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repeated exposure results in desenitization.
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What changes in attitudes or values did research show when people were exposed to sexually explicit material
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less satisfaction with real life partners
more accepting of premarital and extramarital sex less desire for marriage monogamy and having kids |
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Changes in Behavior due to viewing of sexual content can be what and what?
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Constructive or Destructive
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Disinhibition:
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a person becomes less inhibited about performing the sexual behavior witnessed
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Effects of Erotica on Aggression
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people exposed to sexually explicit materials were more likely to retaliate against someone who provoked them
When the material was pleasing and non arousing their aggressive tendencies were calmed |
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Zillman and Bryant researched?
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assessing the effects of exposure to porn on perceptions and attitudes
No exposure had a sense of realtiy and understood the seriousness of rape Intermediate exposure= some perception of realtiy less seriousness of rape Massive exposure= no perception of reality and very little seriousness of rape. |
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AIV
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-being roughed up is sexually stimulating to women and only way to get cold women aroused to be rough
- women pretend they dont want sex because they dont want to seem like sluts but she is really hoping that the man will force her too |
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RMA:
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-women say no when they mean yes
-women secretly want to be raped -women who do sluty things deserve to be raped |
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Importance of Individual differences
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theres a link between the viewing of sexual violence and inflicting pain among females
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McKenzie and Mohr and Zanna are responsible for what theory
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Schema Theory
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Schema Theory
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Mckenzie mohr and zanna
Mental template and structured cognitions |
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Schema:
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closely related ideas that related to specific events or objects
(brainstorm idea model) EX. Schema one may have about the office: desk, papers, calendars, books, chairs |
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Reducing the negative effects of Sexually explicit content
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by making men aware of the horros of rap and the inablility of women to be able to enjoy it through debriefings- men become less susceptible to rape myths
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4 Factor Syndrome
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the 4 major effects of consuming porn are:
1. addiction 2. escalation 3. desensitization 4. tendency to imitate |
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desensitization
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shocking content becomes normal to see
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Short Term Effects of Scary Movies
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crying
trembling Nausea Clinging Incr. Heart rate Freezing |
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Long Range effects of Fright Reactions in Children
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nightmares
years after- night terrors or strange fantasies impaires psych. development |
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Intense Long Lasting Effects of Frighting Movies
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sleep or eating disturbances
avoid depicted situations mental preoccupation generalized avoidance |
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3 types of media content that result in fear responses in real life
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1. danger and injuries
2. distortions of natural forms 3. experience of endangerment and fear by others |
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2 mechanisms that produce an indirect response of fear
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1. Empathy: identify with the characters
2. vicarious involvement: fear of audience in that situation in which the characters are unafraid because they are unaware of the impending danger (worry from the audience) |
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Age differences where that at different ages children experience different types of fear reactions
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3-8: monsters ghosts, supernatural, dark, animals, fast moving objects
9-12: threats of injury or destruction to self or loved ones 12+: personal injury, social and peer pressures and accompanying fears and global fears |
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Reason for Age Difference Fears
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- Cognitive Development of children
- Younger kids dont understand abstract concept while older children do - reactions to transformations (like the hulk) - reactions to abstract threats (like nuclear war or aids) -difficulty with fantasy-reality distinction |
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Strategies for coping with fear
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- noncognitive strategies: dont require the viewer to process verbal info (visual desensitization- seeing the make up artists apply makeup)
(physical activity) - Cognitive Strategies: require the activation of cognitive processes (tell the kids it isn't real) |
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Types of Cognitive Strategies for coping with fear
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- children are told to remember that the program is not real
- offer reassuring info about the minimal danger of any threats presented - info can be provided verbally or visually to calm the children |
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Comstock and Thorson research was on...
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effects on behavior:mediating process
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Lasswell's model depicted what?
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who says what through which channel to whom and with what effects
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Social Learning Theory can also explain what?
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it can explain media can effect others violent behaviors
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Assumptions of the Cultivation Theory
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cheif story teller
- cultural production controlled by profit seeking media congomerates - TV viewing passive and ritualistic - growing up in a symbolic environment |
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Key Concept in Cultivation Analysis
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Cultivation can be long term gradual or cummulative and have cognitive effects on ppl perceptions of reality
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