Cis210 System Analysis

Front 1

Overview of Project Management

Back 1

Step 1: create a work breakdown structure

Step 2: analyze task patterns

Step 3: calculate the critical path

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According to the Standish group only 1/3 of all software projects were

Back 2

According to the Standish group only 1/3 of all software projects were successful - met budget, schedue, and quality targets.

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project coordinator def

Back 3

A project coordinator handles administrative responsibilities for the team and negotiates with users who might have conflicting requirements or want changes that would require additional time or expense.

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project manager def

Back 4

Project managers typically performed for activities, or functions such as: planning, scheduling, monitoring, and reporting.

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project planning def

project scheduling def

Back 5

Project planning identifies all project tasks and estimates the completion time and cost of each.

Project scheduling involves the creation of a specific timetable, usually in the form of charts that show task, task dependencies, and critical task that might delay the project.

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Project monitoring def

Project reporting def

Back 6

Project monitoring requires guiding, supervising, and the coordinating of the project teams' workload.

Project reporting includes regular progress reports to management, users, and the project team itself.

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WBS abbr

PERT abbr

CPM abbr

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WBS Work breakdown structure

PERT Program evaluation and review technique

CPM critical path method

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person day

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person represents the work that one person cna complete in one day.

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SaaS

Back 9

Software as a Service

is a model software deployment run application that is hsoted as a service provided to customers over the Internet

Reduces cost

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Main patterns of development

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in-house

purchase as a software package

use outside consultant

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ASP

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Application service provider a firmt that delives a software application or access to an application by charging a usage or subscription fee

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Horizontal application

Vertical application

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Horizontal application is a software package that can be used in many different types of organizations

Vertical application is a software package designed to handlin information requirments for a specific type of business

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Tools used to evaluated development strategies' cost

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payback analysis

return of investment

net present value

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payback analysis

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payback analysus determins how long it takes an information system to pay gor itself throgut rediced cons and increased benefits

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ROI

Back 15

return of investment is a percentage rate that compares the total net benefits received from a project to the total cost

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Net present valie

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Net present valie of a project is the total value of the benefits minus the total valie of the cost with both cost and benefits adjusted to reflect the point in time at which they occur

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RFP

RFQ

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RFP - request for proposal

RFQ - request for quotation

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quality assurance

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The main objective of quality assurance is to avoid problems or to identify them as soon as possible. Poor quality can result from inaccurate requirements, design problems, coding errors,

faulty documentation, and ineffective testing.

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Software engineering def

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Software engineering is a software development process that stresses solid design, accurate documentation, and careful testing.

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CMM

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CMM - Capability Maturity Model

SEI designed a set of software development standards called CMM

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CMMI

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CMMI - Capability Maturity Model Integration

a more recent version of CMM that integrates software and system development into a much larger framework called process improvement

CMMI• includes five maturity levels, from level I, which is referred to as unpredictable. poorly controlled, and reactive, to Level 5. in which

the optimal result is process improvement.

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ISO 9000-3:2004

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In 2004, ISO updated a set of guidelines called ISO 9000-3:2004, which provided a quality assurance framework for developing and maintaining software. According to ISO, a revision of this standard will be released in 2013.

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Application development def

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Application development is the process of constructing the programs and code modules that serve as the building blocks of the information system.

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module in application development

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module consists of related program code organized into small units that are easy to understand and maintain.

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Simplified model of an Extreme Programming (XP) project. Note the emphasis on iteration

and testing.

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flowchart

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flowchart represents logical rules and interaction graphically, using a series of symbols connected by arrows. Using flowcharts, programmers can break large systems into subsystems and modules that are easier to understand and code.

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Pseudocode

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Pseudocode is a technique for representing program logic. Pseudocode is similar to structured English

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top-down approach in structured application development

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proceeds from a general design to a detailed structure

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Structure Charts in structured application development

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Structure charts show the program modules and the relationships among them. A

structure chart consists of rectangles that represent the program modules, with a rrows

and other symbols that provide additional in formation. Typically, a higher-level module,

called a control module, directs lower-level modules, called subordinate modules. In a

structure chart, symbols represent va rious actions or conditions. Structure chart symbols

represent modules, data couples, control couples, conditions, and loops

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MODULE in Structure Charts

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A rectangle represents a module

Vertical lines at the edges of a rectangle indicate that module 1.3 is a library module. A library module is reusable code and can be invoked from more than one point in the chart

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DATA COUPLE In Structure Charts

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An arrow with an empty ci rcle represents a data couple. A data couple shows data that one module passes to another.

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CONTROL COUPLE In Structure Charts

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An arrow with a filled circle represents a control couple. A control couple shows a message, also called a status flag, which one module sends to

another.

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CONDITION in Structure Charts

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A line with a diamond on

one end represents a condition. A

condition line indicates that a control

module determines which subordinate

modules will be invoked, depending on

a specific condition.

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LOOP in Structure Charts

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curved arrow represents a

loop. A loop indicates that one or

more modules are repeated

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Condition in Structure Charts graph

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CONTROL COUPLE In Structure Charts

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MODULE in Structure Charts

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DATA COUPLE In Structure Charts

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Front 39

Cohesion def

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Cohesion measures a module's scope and processing characteristics. A module that performs a single function or task has a high degree of cohesion, which is desirable.

Because it focuses on a single task, a cohesive module is much easier to code and reuse.

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LOOP in Structure Charts

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Front 41

Coupling def

Back 41

Coupling describes the degree of interdependence among modules. Modules that

are independent are loosely coupled, which is desirable

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Phases of Drawing a Structure Chart

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STEP I: REVIEW THE DFDS

STEP 2: IDENTIFY MODULES AND RELATIONSHIPS

STEP 3: ADD COUPLES, LOOPS, AND CONDITIONS

STEP 4: ANALYZE THE STRUCTURE CHART AND THE DATA DICTIONARY

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release plan from XP (extreme programming)

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release plan, which specifies when user stories will be implemented and the timing of the releases. Releases are relatively frequent, and

each system release is like a prototype that can be tested and modified as needed.

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iteration cycle from XP (extreme programming)

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User stories are implemented in a series of iteration cycles. An iteration cycle includes

planning, designing, coding, and testing of one or more features based on user

stories. At the beginning of each iteration cycle, which is often two weeks long, the

team holds an iteration planning meeting to break down the user stories into specific

tasks that are assigned to team members. As new user stories or features are added,

the team reviews and modifies the release plan.

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parallel programming from XP (extreme programming)

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parallel programming, two programmers work on the same task on the same

computer; one drives (programs) while the other navigates (watches).

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test-driven design from XP (extreme programming)

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test-driven design focuses on end results from the beginning and prevents programmers from straying from their goals. Because of the magnitude and intensity of the multicycle process, agile testing relies heavily on automated testing methods and software.

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Desk checking

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Desk checking is the process of

reviewing the program code to spot logic errors, which produce incorrect results. This

process can be performed by the person who wrote the program or by other programmers.

Many organizations require a more formal type of desk checking called a structured

walkthrough, or code review.

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design walkthrough

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In addition to analyzing logic and program code, the project team usually holds a session with users called a design walkthrough, to review the interface with a crosssection of people who will work with the new system and ensure that all necessary features have been included

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unit testing def

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The testing of an individual program or module is called unit testing. The objective is to identify and eliminate execution errors that could cause the

program to terminate abnormally, and logic errors that could have been missed during desk checking.

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stub testing def

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stub testing, the programmer simulates each program outcome or result and displays a message to indicate whether or not the program executed successfully. Each stub represents an entry or exit point that will be linked later

to another program or data file.

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integration testing,

or link testing.

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Testing two or more programs that depend on each other is called integration testing, or link testing

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system testing

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After completing integration testing, you must perform system testing, which involves the

entire information system

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acceptance tests

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Successful completion of system testing is the key to user and management approval,

which is why system tests sometimes are called acceptance tests.

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System documentation def

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System documentation describes the system's functions and how they are implemented.

System documentation includes data dictionary entries, data flow diagrams, object models, screen layouts, source documents, and the systems request that initiated the project.

System documentation is necessary reference material for the programmers and analysts

who must support and maintain the system.

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Operations documentation def

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Operations documentation contains all the information needed for processing and

distributing online and printed output.

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User documentation def

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User documentation consists of instructions and information to users who will interact

with the system and includes user manuals, Help screens, and tutorials.

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System changeover def

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System changeover is the process of putting the new information system online and retiring the old system

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direct cutover approach

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direct cutover approach causes the changeover from the old system to the new

system to occur immediately when the new system becomes operational. Direct

cutover usually is the least expensive changeover method because the IT group has to

operate and maintain only one system at a time.

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Analysts sometimes confuse phased and pilot operation methods. What is the difference

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Both methods

combine direct cutover and parallel operation to reduce risks and costs. With phased

operation, however, you give a part of the system to all users, while pilot operation

provides the entire system, but to only some users.

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systems implementation phase consists of

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application development, testing,

installation, and evaluation of the new system.

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Four changeover methods exist:

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direct cutover, parallel operation, pilot operation, and phased operation

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RAD

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Rapid Application Development (RAD) is a development lifecycle designed to give much faster development and higher-quality results than those achieved with the traditional lifecycle. It is designed to take the maximum advantage of powerful development software that has evolved recently

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CASE

RIPP

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Computer-Assisted Software Engineering (CASE_

Rapid Iterative Production Prototyping (RIPP) - a precursor to RAD

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Rapid Application Development has four essential aspects

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Rapid Application Development has four essential aspects: methodology, people, management, and tools.

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RAD Stage

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Requirements Planning
Also known as the Concept Definition Stage, this stage defines the business functions and data subject areas that the system will support and determines the system’s scope.

User Design
Also known as the Functional Design Stage, this stage uses workshops to model the system’s data and processes and to build a working prototype of critical system components.

Construction
Also known as the Development Stage, this stage completes the construction of the physical application system, builds the conversion system, and develops user
aids and implementation work plans.

Implementation
Also known as the Deployment Stage, this stage includes final user testing and training, data conversion, and the implementation of the application system.

Front 66

query by example (QBE)

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language, the user provides an example of the data requested.

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Three data flow and process combinations that you must avoid

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Spontaneous generation - produces output but has input

Black hole - has input but no output

Gray hole - one input and one output, but the input obviously is insufficient to generate the output

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The symbol for a process

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rectangle with rounded corners and the name of the process appears inside

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logical model def

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logical model shows what the system must do, regardless of how it will be implemented physically

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physical model def

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a physical model that describes how the system will be constructed

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Data and process modeling involves three main tools

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data flow diagrams

data dictionary

process description

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systematic sample def

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for example select every tenth customer for review

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stratified sample def

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select representatives from each subset

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Hawthorne Effect

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the name comes from a well-known study performed in the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the 20s

The purpose of the study was to determine how various changes in the work environment would affect employee productivity.

Result - productivity improved during observation whether the conditions were made better or worse

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REJ

Back 75

Rapid Economic Justification

MS has developed a method for measuring total costs and benefits called REJ

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TCO

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Total Cost of Ownership

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scalability def

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refers to a systems ability to handle increased business volume and transactions in the future

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decision tree

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decision tree is a graphical representation of the conditions, actions, and rules found in a decision table.

Decisions trees show the logic structure in a horizontal form that resembles a tree with the roots at the left and the branches to the right.

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decision tree (scr)

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modular design

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modular design is based on combinations of three logical structures, sometimes called control structure, which server as building blocks for the process. Each logical structure must have a single entry and exit point. The three structure are called sequence, selection and iteration.

Rectangle represent a step or process, a diamond represents a condition or decision, and the logic follow the lines in the direction indicated by the arrow.

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sequence in modular design

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the completion of steps in sequential order, one after another.

One or more of the steps might represent a subprocess that contains additional logical structures.

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selection in modular design

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The completion of one of two or more process steps based on the results of a test or condition

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iteration in modular design

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the completion of a process step that is repeated until a specific condition change.

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context diagram def

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context diagram is a top-level view of an information system that show the system's boundaries and scope

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Leveling in process drawing

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Leveling is the process of drawing a series of increasingly detailed diagrams, until all functional primitives are identified

aka exploding, partitioning, or decomposing

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Balancing in process drawing

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Balancing maintains consistency among a set of DFDsby ensuring that input and output data flows align properly.

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Configuration management (CM)

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aka change control

Is a process for controlling changes in system requirements during software development. CM also is an important tool for managing system changes and costs after a system becomes operational.

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Risk avoidance

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eliminates the risk by adding protective safeguards like installing a firewall to prevent unauthorized access

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Risk mitigation

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Mitigation reduces the impact of a risk by careful planning and preparation

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Risk transference

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this shifts the risk to another asset or party, such as an insurance compant

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Risk Acceptance

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Means that nothing is done. Companies usually accept a risk only when the protection clearly is not worth the expense.

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Capacity planning

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Capacity planning is a process that monitors current activity and performance levels, anticipates future activity, and forecasts the resources needed to provide desired levels of service

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What-if analysis

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This allows you to vary one or more elements in a model in order to measure the effect on other elements.

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Baseline def

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Baseline is a formal reference point that measures system characteristics at a specific time. System analysts use baselines as yardsticks to document features and performance during the system development process

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Software reengincering def

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Software reengincering uses analytical techniques to identify potential quality and performance improvements in an information system. In that sense, software reengincering is similar to business process reengineering, which seeks to simplify operations, reduce costs, and improve quality

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baseline

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A baseline is a formal reference point that measures system characteristics at a specific time. Systems analysts use baselines as yardsticks to document features and per-formance during the systems development process.

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The three types of baselines

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are functional, allocated, and product.

The functional baseline is the configuration of the system documented at the beginning of the project. It consists of all the necessary system requirements and design constraints. The allocated baseline documents the system at the end of the design phase and identifies any changes since the functional baseline.

The allocated baseline includes testing and verification of all system requirements and features. The product baseline describes the system at the beginning of system operation.

The product baseline incorporates any changes made since the allocated baseline and includes the results of performance and acceptance tests for the operational system.

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operational costs

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include items such as supplies, equipment rental and software leases.

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Maintenance expenses

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vary significantly during the system's operational life and include spending ti support maintenance activities

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Maintenance activities

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include changing programs, procedure, or documentation to ensure correct system performance, adapting the system to changing requirements, and making the system operate more efficiently

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Corrective maintenance

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Corrective maintenance is performed to fix errors

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adaptive maintenance

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adaptive maintenance adds mew capability and enhancements

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preventive maintenance

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improves efficiently

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preventive maintenance

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reduces the possibility of future system failure

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corrective maintenance

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corrective maintenance diagnoses and corrects errors in an operational system.

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types of coupling

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describes the degree of interdependence among modules.

Loosely coupled - modules that are independent

tightly coupled - one module is linked to the logic contained in another module

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Cohesion and coupling

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Cohesion and coupling are important tools for evaluating the overall design. It is desirable to have modules that are highly cohesive and looselycoupled

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Cohesion between modules

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cohesion measures a module's scope and processing characteristics.

Module that performs as single function or task has a high degree of cohesion, which is desirable

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Capability Maturity Model (CMM)

Back 109

set of software development standards

One of the development standards is CMM

The purpose of the model was to improve software quality, reduce development time, and cut cost.

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CMMI

Back 110

Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a newer model

It integrates software and system development into a much larger framework called process improvement

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Payback analysis

Back 111

determines how long it takes an information system to pay for itself through reduced costs and increased benefits

Front 112

ROI

Back 112

return of investment (ROI) is a percentage rate that compares the total net benefits (the return) received from a project to the total costs (the investment) of the project

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Net present value (NPV)

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NPV of a project is the total value of the benefits minus the total value of the costs, with both costs and benefits adjusted to reflect the point in time at which they occur.

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object-oriented analysis

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describes an information system by identifying things called objects

objects represents a real person, place, event, etc

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Payback analysis

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determines how long it tales an information system to pay for itself through reduced costs and increased benefits

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ROI

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ROI = return of investment

is a percentage rate that compares the total net benefits received from a project to the total cost of the project

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NPV

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NPV = net present value

Of a project is the total value of the benefits minus the total value of the costs, with both costs and benefits adjusted to reflect the point in time at which they occur

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data dictionary (data repository)

Back 118

is a central storehouse of information about the system's data. An analyst uses the data dictionary to collect, document, and organize specific facts about the system, including the contents of data flows, data stores, entries, and processes.

A data dictionary also defines and describes all data elements and meaningful combinations of data elements.

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data element (def)

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called data item or field

The smallest piece of data that has meaning within an information system

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data structures

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data elements are combined into records, also called data structures.

A record is a meaningful combination of related data elements that is included in a data flow or retained in a data store.

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process description

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documents the details of a functional primitive, and represents a specific set of processing steps and business logic