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183 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The term ________ refers to the body's ability to acquire, convert, store, and utilize energy.
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bioenergetics
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The immediate source of energy for all celular activities, including muscle contraction is
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ATP - adenosine triphosphate
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In releasing its energy, ATP is cleaved to _______, because only a limited amount of ATP is stored in the body, energy pathways have been developed to replace ATP as it is utilized.
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ADP - adenosine diphosphate
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Phosphagen system is composed of the ___ and ______ that are stored in muscle fibers.
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ATP, PCr - phophocreatine
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Through the activity of the enzyme ____, PCr yields its phosphate group so that it can be added to ADP to synthesize ATP. *** lasts for no longer than 30 seconds
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creatine kinase
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The nonoxidative system is sometimes referred to as the _______, because oxygen is not required for it to produce ATP.
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anaerobic pathway
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In the anaerobic system only _____, can be used to produce ATP. In the absence of O2, however, the breakdown of CHO yields _____, which can contribute to muscle fatigue as it accumulates.
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CHO
latic acid |
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The nonoxidative system is the main provider of energy to the working muscle in athletic events lasting from ___ to ____
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30 seconds to 3 mins
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Oxidative ATP-producing pathway is also called the ______, because oxygen is required for it to operate.
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aerobic system
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Both ____, _____, and some ____, can be used to synthesize the oxidative APT pathway
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CHO, lipids, proteins
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The metabolic byproducts that result from __________ are water and carbon dioxide, whch have no fatiguing effects on working muscle.
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oxidative phosphorylation
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In activities lasting more than 3 min in duration and in which intensity is limited, muscles primarily rely on _________ to produce ATP.
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oxidative metabolism
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The exercise intensity at which Lactate accumulation occurs is referred to as the _______ or the ______
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anaerobic threshold, lactate thresold
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Skeletal muscle cells are typically termed ______ or ______.
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myocytes or myofibers
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the ____ is a layer of connective tissue that is wrapped around each myofiber
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endomysium
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A group of as many as 150 myofibers lying in parallel are bundled together to form a ____, which is encased by a layer of tissue called the _____.
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fasciculus
perimysium |
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The layer of connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle is referred to as the _____.
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epimysium
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Unlike most cells, each individual myofiber contains more than one _______. Indeed, these multinucleated cells may possess ___ to ____ nuclei per millimeter of fiber length.
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nucleus
200-300 |
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The endoplasmic reticulum, which is termed the _______, is richly developed in the myofiber, because the ____ ions that it stores are needed to stimulate muscle contraction.
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sarcoplasmic reticulum
calcium |
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The plasma membrane of the myofiber is referred to as the _________.
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sarcolemma
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The voltage-gated sodium channels that are regulary distributed along the sarcolemma allow electrical stimulation of the myofiber by the generation of ________. As a result, myofibers are considered to be "excitable" cells.
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action potentials
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The contractile filaments _____ and _____ account for roughly 60% of the protein content of the myofiber. ______ is the larger proteing and is sometimes called the ____; ______ is the smaller of the contractile proteins and is termed the _______.
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Myosin
the thick filament actin thin filament |
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Regulatory filaments are essential for triggering the contractile event. these regulatory filaments are _____ and _______.
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troponin and tropomyosin
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Humans have three myosin isoforms -
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type I, type IIa and IIb
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Type I
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fibers have slow-twitch properties but high oxidative capacity
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Type IIB
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myofibers are fast twitch with low ovxidative potential
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Type IIA
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myofibers are intermediate in both twitch velocity adn oxidatve capacity
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Exercise of high intensity and short duration is principally powered by type _____ myofibers, whereas activities featuring low intensity and long duration are almost exclusively dependent on type ___ myofibers
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type II, type I
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The _____ of muscle contraction explains how these protein filaments interact to produce a twitch of the fiber.
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sliding filament theory
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As the nervous system exciteds the myofiber's sarcolemma and its ____, calcium stored within the sarcoplasmic reticulum is released into the cell's cytosol
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T-tubules
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_______ binds to troponin, causing the associated tropomyosin to undergo a conformational shift.
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calcium
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As a result of this shift, _____ on the actin filament are exposed.
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active sites
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_____ heads located on eeh myosin molecule bind to the exposed, active sites of actin
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cross-bridge
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The enyzme ATPase, which is found on the cross-bridge head, cleaves ATP, resulting in the ____ that pulls actin toward the center of the myosin molecule.
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powerstroke
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this sliding action of the actin over the myosin results in ______________________.
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in shortening of the fiber and generation of force
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When a new ATP molecular binds to the myosin cross-bridge head, the link between the actin is ________, allowing the entire process to repeat itself so long as the _____ remain elevated
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broken
cytosolic calcium levels |
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The _____ is responsible for delievering cytosolic calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, thus returning the myofiber to a state of relaxtion
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calcium pump
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Pulmonary system
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allows the body to breathe and thus exchange gases with the environment.
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During insipiration air is taken _______, and during expiration air ________.
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air is taken into the lungs
air leaves the lungs |
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The purpose of inspiration is:
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to bring needed oxygen into the body; the purpose of expiration is to eliminate carbon dioxide, a byproduct of metabolism, from the body
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Air enters the pulmonary system through the ____ and _____.
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mouth and nose
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Inhaling through the nose has the advantages of _______, but may cause _____
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advantages of warming the air and removing many airborne particles that may cause irritation or even infection
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During exercise, breathing through the _____ is generatlly required to accommodate the increased rate and depth of ______.
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mouth
ventilation |
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Passageways through the nose and mouth join together at the ________.
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Pharynx
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Inhaled air then passes through the ____ before entering the cartilage-lined ____.
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larynx
trachea |
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The trachea then branches to form two _____, each leading into one of the two lungs within the thoracic cavity
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bronchi
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Within the lungs, the bronchi divide to form numerous _______.
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bronchioles
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At the end of each bronchioloe is a cluster of ____. It is within these tiny air sacs tha tgases are exhanged between the lungs and the blood traveling through the capillaries surrounding each alveolus.
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alveoli
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Inhalation
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inspiratory muscles contract to expand the size of the thoracic cavity
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To achieve this the _____ contracts moving downward toward the abdomen, whereas the external _____ pull the rib cage outward.
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diaphragm
intercostal muscles |
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During exercise, when the depth of breathing increases, accessory inspiratory muscles also contribut to
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expansion of the rib cage by lifting upward
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Under resting conditions expiration is a
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passive process that involves relaxation of the inspiratory muscles and consequent recoiling of th ethoracic cavity, returning the lungs back to their original dimensions. This increases the pressure inside the lungs, forcing air out of the body through the nose and mouth
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During exercise exhalation becomes an
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active process in which the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles contract to more forcefully collapse the size of the thoracic cavity and drive air out of the lungs
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As the exercise stimulus becomes more intense the rate of breathing substantially _______, and a secondary, less pronounced ____ in the depth of breathing becomes apparent
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increases
increases |
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During maximal intensity exercise, VE may be fold _______ higher than the typical 6 L/min that is observed under resting conditions
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20 to 25
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This response is a consequence of both an increment in ____, w hich is the amount of air entering or leaving the lungs in a sing breath, from 0.5 to approximately 4 L, as well as an increase in _____ from 12 to almost 50 breaths per min.
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tidal volume
respiratory rate |
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Despite this, the work of breathing remains fairly constant. At rest, __ of the bodys energy expenditure is accounted for by breathing, and even during maximal effort exercise, the energy used to power ventilation represents only __ of the body's energy needs.
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3%
5% |
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In healthy individuals ________ is not limited by ventilation, nor does _____ training induce adaptations in ventilatory capacity.
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exercise capacity
long term exercise training |
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Maximal Aerobic Capacity (VO2max)
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a. training adaptations are evident, in teh exercise intensity at which the anaerobic threshold occurs
b. in untrained individuals, anaerobic threshold occurs at approximately 55% of one's VO2max c. The anaerobic threshold of well-trained endurance athletes occurs at a much greater exercise intensity, perhaps 80% to 85% of their VO2max |
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The human heart is comprised of four ______.
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chambers
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The two upper chambers are referred to as the ___. The two lower chambers are called _____.
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atria
ventricles |
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The right atrium receives blood from
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all parts of the body through the vena cava and the left atrium from the lungs
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The ________ into the ventricles, and the right and left ventricles, respectively, drive blood to the lungs and the rest of the body.
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atria pump blood
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The right and left sides of the heart are separated by the _____, a thick wall of connective tissue
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septum
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The right and left atria contract in unison, as do the right and left ventricles. The contractions of the atria and of the ventricles, however, are staggered. In this way, while blood is being delivered to the ventricles, those chambers are in their ____, adn during contraction of the ventricles the atria are at _____.
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resting phase
rest |
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The heart's pumping action is described as the
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cardiac cycle
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______ refers to the contractile phase of the ______,when blood is forced out of the atria and ventricles.
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Systole
myocardium |
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____ is the relaxation phase between contractions of the ventricles; this phase occurs when the chambers fill with blood for the next cycle.
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Diastole
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Stroke Volume
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volume of blood ejected by each ventricle per contraction of the heart. At rest SV is typcially 70ml
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Heart rate
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number of times the heart contracts per min. Under resting conditions, hr is approximately 72bpm.
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Cardiac Output
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amount of blood pumped fromt eh heart by each ventricle per minute.
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Cardiac output =
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HR * SV
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Using normal resting values of HR and SV, cardiac output at rest is approximately
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5 l/m
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end-diastolic Volume
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amount of blood in each ventricle at the end of the resting phase of the cardiac cycle
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According to the _____, EDV will significantly affect SV, because the greater the volume of blood in teh ventricle, the greater the stretch imparted on teh myocardium
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Frank-Starling law
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As stretch increases so does ____, both by ___ of the muscle and by optimizing the ____ of the fibers composing the myocardium. At rest normal EDV would be approximately ____.
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contractile force
length 125 mL |
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End-Systolic volume
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volume of blood remaining in each ventricle following its contraction. At rest, ESV equals approximately 55ml
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Ejection fraction
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percentage of the blood in the ventricle during diastole that is actually pumped out during systole. Sometimes it is defined as the ration of SV to EDV
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EF =
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SV/EDV
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Under resting conditons, the ejection fraction is roughly ___ although it can be as high as ____.
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56%
67% |
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The greater demand for blood that occurs when exercise begins results in an ___ in cardic output
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increases
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This acute response in cardiac function is directly linked to the ___________, and at maximal effort, cardiac output can be ________ than that at rest.
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five to sixfold higher (25-30 L/min)
5 L/min |
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This elevated pumping capacity is brought about by increases in both ____ and ____.
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HR and SV
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The SV increases until the exercise intensity reaches approximately _____ of VO2, at which point it levels off. Consequently, further elevation in cardiac output are accounted for primarily by increased _____.
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HR
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A linear relationship exists between ______ and ______ intensity. As a result, monitoring ____ is a common method of assessing exercise intenstiy
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HR and exercise intensity
HR |
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As greater amounts of blood are pumped to the working muscle, the amount of blood returning to the heart is similarly ______.
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enhanced
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This leads to elevations in ____, which can be as high as ____ when SV is at its peak value
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EDV
160 mL |
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The relationship between SV and EDV
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a. As EDV increases during exercise so does SV
b. in yound, untrained men, SV may increase from 70 mL at rest to 100 mL during exercise. |
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Another method used by the heart to amplify its pumping ability during execise is to increase its _______. This increased of contraction results in a change in ejection fraction from approximately ___ at rest to as high as ____.
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contractility
56% 70% |
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Chronic aerobic training has little or no impact on _____
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maximal Hr
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In contrast, ____ may be significantly decreased following a prolonged training program.
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resting HR
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Because resting cardiac output remains 5 L/min in those who are trained, SV ___________ to counter this reduction in HR. At rest, SV may may increase to ____ following _____ exercise.
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increases
85mL long-term |
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During high-intensity exercise SV of aerobically trained athletes may be as high as ____, contributing to the elevated max cardiac output observed in those athletes
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170 mL
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During exercise of any submaximal intensity, cardiac output remains essentially ____ with exercise training. however, among trained individuals, this cardiac output is sustained with ____ HR and ____ SV values than are noted in untrained individuals.
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unaltered
lower higher |
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During normal upright posture ____ affects the return of blood to the heart.
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gravity
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In the the _____ or _____ positions, the return of blood from the legs is more efficient. As a result of these postural influences, SV during exercise is ________ at any given intensity than it is during upright exercise.
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supine or prone positions
greater |
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Because cardiac output is unaffected by posture, teh greater SV that occurs during ____ exercise is accompanied by a ____ HR than would be seen during exercise of the same intensity in teh upright position.
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supine
lower |
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The lowering of HR during exercise in the supine position musct be _______ when monitoring exercise intensity with HR response
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borne in mind
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specifically, HR may ________ exercise intensity during exercise performed in a lying position.
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underestimate
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_____ types of vessels make up the vascular system
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five
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______ are thick-walled, large diameter vessels that carry blood awary from the heart.
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Arteries
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The largest artery is the ____, which directly receives blood from the left ventricle. Because of their proximity to the heart, the blood pressure, or the force exerted by the blood on the walls of the vessesl, is highest in the ______.
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aorta, arteries
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Each artery then branches off to form several _______, which are smaller in size and demonstrate a lower blood pressure than their feeder vessesl.
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arterioles
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Each arteriole then gives rise to between two and five ____. The diameter of a capillayr is very small, barely large that the size of a red blood cel. Similary the walls of a capillary are very thin, only a single cell in thickness, thus allowing the exchange of ___________
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capillaries
exchange of nutrients and gases with the tissue |
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Several capillaries then join together to form a ____, and it is these venules that begin the return of blood to the heart.
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venule
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A number of venules form a single, larger ____, and it is these low-pressure, large diameter vessels that ultimately return blood to the heart
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Vein
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The main function of the vascular system is
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to satisfy the deman of active tissue for blood, both to provide nurtrients and oxygen and to remove metabolic byproducts and carbone dioxide
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______ located at regular intervals throughout the vasculature ensure unidirectional blood flow through this network and allow the circulation of blood within the entire body.
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one-way values
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Proper function of the vasculature entails
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not only providing direction for the delivery of blood but also regulating flow rates that are appropriate for the needs of the tissue.
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In effect, the greater the metabolic activity displayed the greater the
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flow rate of blood to the specific tissue
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To meet the increased deman for blood that occurs in exercising muscle, arterioles ______. Howerver to satisfy working muscle, blood flow to other tissue, especially the viscera, is reduced as a result of _____ within arterioles in those internal organs
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vasodilate
vasoconstriction |
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______ is elicited by a relaxatioin of the smooth muscle that is layered around the walls of th earterioles, whereas contraction of the smooth muscle causes vasconstriction adn restriction of blood flow.
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Vasodiliation
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The force exerted by the blood on the vessel walls as it flow through that vessel is referred to as
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blood pressure
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Because the heart pumps blood in a pulsatile rather than a constant fashion, blood pressure ______.
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oscillates
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The degree of this pulsatility differs throughout the vascular network:
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a. It is most pronounced at the arteries, where blood exits the heart
b. it is greatly muted as blood travels within the capillaries, however, and it is no longer evident as the blood moves through the venules and veins on its return to the heart |
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As blood is pumped from the heart, the resistance imposed by the vessels to its flow is termed _____.
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afterload
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Along with _____, or the amount of blood in teh ventricle immediately before contraction, afterload greatly affect SV.
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preload
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Enhance preload facilitates ___ SV, wheras increase afterload may ____ SV. That is, significant afterload creates greater resistance to the ejection of blood from teh left ventricle; as a result, SV is ____.
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reduced
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Afterload is directly related to the ______ of the arteial system.
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compliance
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The greater the compliance the more easily
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the arterial walls can be stretched to accommodate the surge of blood during systole, allowing for greater SV
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A healthy arterial system demonstartes adequate compliance allowing
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the heart to overcome vascular resistance
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Atherosclerossis decreases
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arterial compliance and increase blood pressure
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Systolic Blood pressure
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exerted on arterial walls during contraction of the left ventricle. This value can be used to estimate the contractile force generated by the heart.
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In health individuals, SBP under resting conditions is approximately ______.
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120mmHG
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Resting values greater than 140 mm HG indicated
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hypertension
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Diastolic Blood pressure
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pressure exerted on the arterial walls during the resting phase between ventricular beats.This value relects the peripheral resistance or health of the vasculature.
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In healthy adults, resting DBP is approximately _____.
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80 mm hg. Values greater than 90 mm hg are considered to be hypertensive
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The pulse pressure
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is the difference betweeen the SBP and the DBP.
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Assuming a healthy person at rest, this value is roughly
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40 mmhg
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Mean Arterial Pressure
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average pressure exerted throughout the entire cardiac cycle, and it reflects the average force driving blood into the tissue.
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MAP =
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DBP + 1/3(SBP-DBP)
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Resting MAP in a healthy person is
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93 mmHG
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Rate-pressure product
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also called the double product, is a rough correlate of the myocardial oxygen uptake and , thus, of the workload of the left ventricle.
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Alterations in HR and blood pressure contribute to changes in ____, because RPP is a function of SBP multiplied by HR.
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RPP
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RPP=
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SPB * HR
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At rest a healthy individual displays a double product of approximately
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8640 (120 mmHg * 72 bpm)
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The vascular system undergoes _____ major modificaitons during exercise.
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two
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The first modification is to
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redistribute blood flow to meet the increased deman of the working muscles
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This ____ of blood away from the visceral organs to the active skeletal muscles occurs by vasoconstriction of of arterioles within teh viscera and vasodilation of arterioles in the muscle tissue.
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Shunting
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The second modification is a general vasodilation that results in
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decreased total periphearal resistance, which accommodates teh rise in cardiac output that occurs during exercise. In fact, vasodilatioin enables the exercise-induced increase in pumping capacity of heart.
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Despite this vasodilation, teh several fold increazse in cardiac output during exercise still results in
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elevated systolic pressure
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Also, like cardiac output, increases in systolic pressure are dependent on the
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exercise intenstiy
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During maximal effort rhythmic exercise systolic pressure may exceed
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200 mmhg
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During sustained submaximal exercise, systolic pressure is generally maintain at
|
140 to 160 mmhg
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Diastolic pressure eith remains ____ or ______ slightly, even during maximal effort exercise.
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steady or decreases
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A sudden, significant drop in systolic pressure with increased workload when accompained by other symptoms of ischemia or an increase in diastolic pressure or systolic pressures are criteria for
|
termination of exercise testing
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A prolonged endurance training program results in several beneficial
|
vascular adaptations
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Under resting conditions, trained individuals display reduced ____, _____, and ____.
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SBP, DBP, and MAP
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As a therapeutic measure in treating hypertension, however, ______ appears to be effective amoung those people who are mildly hypertensive
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exercise
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During submax exercise at any given intensity, those who are trained demonstarate lower ____, ____ and ____. Maximal SBP is typically ____ among well conditioned individuals whereas maximal DBP and MAP are attenuated compared with those of untrained individuals.
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SBP, DBP, and MAP
higher |
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______ training also improves teh ability of the vascular system to redistribute blood flow during the onset of exercise so that shunting of blood to working muscles occurs more quickly
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Endurance
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Another well-documented adapatation to endurance training is an improved ____ within the muscle. As a result of this trained muscle shows an enhanced capacity to extract oxygen from the blood delievered to it.
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capillarity
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At any given submaximal intensity _________ elicits higher SBP and DBP than those values evident during more conventional endurance exercise.
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rhythmic upper body endurance exercise
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This probably results from teh smaller muscle mass involved and the greater resistance to blood flow that occurs during
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arm-cranking exercise
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The additional cardo strain associated with upper body exercise should be considered when
|
making exercise recommendations, particularly for those who may hae cardiovascular disease
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Resistance exercise features forceful contractions of myofibers that
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impede blood flow through the muscle, thus elevating bp
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The degree of this increased peripheral resistance and concomitant pressure elevations is _________ to the force exerted by the muscle and the total muscle mass that is contracting.
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proportionate
|
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The amplificatioin of bp during resistance exercise is even more pronounced when ____ contractions are performed. Systolic pressures greater than _____ have been recorded during maximal intensity isometric contractions.
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isometric
450 mmhg |
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These bp responses should be accounted for when prescribing
|
exercise programs for those with cardiovascular disease or who are unfit.
|
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Moderate intensity resistance exercise featuring repetitions with full range of motion should be recommend to those who may have
|
cardiovascular limitations
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Blood carries
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oxygen throughout the body
|
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Blood, which accounts for approximately ___ of a persons body weight, is composed of ______ along wtih several types of cells. ____, ____, _____.
|
8%
plasma erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets |
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Plasma comprises approximately ___ of the bloods volume in men and ___ in women
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55%
58% |
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The main componet of plasma is ____ (90-93%); however it also contains disolved substances, such as ______, _____,______, _______ and _____.
|
water
proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, waste products, and various hormones |
|
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Red blood cells-
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erythroctyes
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Only small amounts of oxygen are disolved in the plasma, but the vast majority of the oxygen transported in the blood is bound to ________, a protein found only in the erythrocytes.
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hemoglobin
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Hemoglobin also carries some of the ____ transported by the blood. By far, erythrocytes are the most abundant of the cell types in the blood, accounting for more than ____ of the bloods cell.
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carbon dioxide
99% |
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_________ is the percentage of blood volume that is composed of erythrocytes.
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Hematocrit
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In men, teh average hematocrit is ___ to ___; in women, it is usually ___ to___. This gender difference exists because the male hormone testosterone affects production of erthrocytes.
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40 - 50%
35-45% |
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Because of lower hematocrit levels, women have a reduced hemoglobin content: men are normally approximately _______ compared to ______ of blood in women.
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14-17 g/100 mL
12-15 g/100 mL |
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Leukocytes -
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white blood cells
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Leukocytes are components of the ______. Their primary function is to ________________.
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immun system.
to destroy potentially infectious agents that enter the body |
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Platelets are the __________ component of the blood. Their main function is to
|
smallest
accumulate and form a plug where damage has occurred to the wall of the blood vessel and, thus, to prevent the loss of blood |
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The most obvious effect of exercise is to induce _______, or an increase in the volume of blood delieverd to the working muscles. This allows a greater delivery of ______ and _____ as well as a more efficient removal of ____ and ____.
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hyperemia
oxygen and nutrients carbon dioxide amd metabolic byproducts |
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Another response that is commonly obseved during prolonged endurance exercise is
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the movement of plasma out of the blood vessels and into the surrounding tissue.
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This __________ severes to prevent overheating of the body by having more water available for sweating and is more pronounced during exercise in ____ environments.
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cardiovascular drift
hot |
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The drift decreases the total volume of blood in the vasculature, resulting in
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decreased SV and increased HR even though exercise intensity remains constant
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The movement of plasma out of the blood also leads to _____________, which is apparent in elevations in hematocit adn hemoglobin values.
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hemoconcentration
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Production of erythrocytes significantly increases leading to
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a greater oxygen carry capacity
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Plasma volume ______ to an even greater extent, adn as a result, relative measures of hemoglobin and hematocrit are actually ____ in well conditioned athletes
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increases
decreased |
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This has been termed _____, but it is not considered to be a pathologic adapation.
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runner's anemia
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Because the total amount of red blood cells and hemoglobin are enhanced by training, the _______capacity of the blood is also enhanced
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oxygen carrying
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Increased plasma volume in trained individuals has several advantageious effects:
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a. at rest, it results in a higher SV and lower HR
b. During exercise, increased plasma volume enhances the capacity for thermoregulation; recall teh effect of cardiovascular drift c. Similar to resting conditions, a trained person's SV is higher and HR lower during submaximal exercise than those of an untrained individual. d. Maximal SV and cardic output are also more impressive in a trained individual, in large part because of their greater plasma volumes |
