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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Tissue |
- a group of similar cells combined to perform a common function - 4 types (epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous) |
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Gland |
epithelial cells that are to secrete a substance - pancreas secretes digestive juices into the small intestine via ducts - endocrine gland secretes insulin into the bloodstream |
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Epithelial Tissue |
- 3 kinds (Squamous, Cuboidal, columnar) - lines hollow organs and cover surfaces which consist of tightly packed cells -protects from injury, invasion of bacteria/virsuses, - secretes mucus and absorbs molecules from kidney tubules using microvilli |
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3 kinds of Epithelial tissue and where they line |
1. Columnar ( rectangular columns that line the digestive track) 2. Squamous (flat cells that line the lungs and blood vessels) 3. Cubodial ( cube-shaped cells that line kidney tubules) |
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Connective Tissue |
- Separated by a matrix - binds organs together, provides support and protection, fills spaces, produces blood cells, and stores fat - 3 kinds = loose fibrous, dense fibrous, adipose |
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Matrix and 3 examples |
- in connective tissue and is a noncellular material from solid to jellylike fluid - 1. White Collagen fibers ( protein collagen gives flexibility and strength) -2. Reticular fibers (thin collagen fibers highly branched and form supporting networks) -3. Yellow elastic fibers |
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Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue |
- allows the lungs, arteries, and bladder to expand - forms a protective covering of the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves - occurs beneath skin and in epithelial tissues |
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Dense Fibrous Connective tissue |
- contains many collagen fibers packed together found in tendons(connects muscle to bones) and ligaments (connects bone to other bones at joints) |
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Adipose tissue |
- fibroblasts (found in loose connective tissue that synthesis collagen and elastic fibers) enlarge and store fat which the body uses for energy, insulation, and organ protection - found beneath the skin, around kidneys, and surface of the heart |
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Cartilage |
specialized form of dense tissue which rm the smooth surfaces that allow bones to slide against each other |
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Bone |
Most rigid connective tissue - inorganic salts give the rigidity while protein fibers provide elasticity and strength |
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Neuroglia |
nonconducting nerve cells that are associated with neurons and support/nourish neurons - outnumber neurons 9 to 1 and take up more than half of the brain |
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Microglia |
support neurons and engulf bacterial and cellular debris |
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astrocytes |
provide nutrients to neurons and produce a hormone known as a glia-derived growth factor |
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tight junctions |
form an impermeable barrier between epithelial cells |
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gap junctions |
strengthen connections while allowing small molecules to pass |
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adhesion junctions |
anchor tissues in place and increases overall strength |
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Structure of a neuron |
1. Cell body (contains the major concentration of the cytoplasm and the nucleus 2. Dendrites ( receptive part of the neuron- conduct signals toward the cell body 3. Axons (conductive, transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body |
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Muscular tissue |
composed of muscle fibers that contain actin and myosin filaments which are used for movement - 3 types ( skeletal, smooth, cardiac) |
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Skeletal tissue |
-muscular - attached by tendons to the bones of the skeleton and when it contracts the body moves VOLUNTARILY - striated cells |
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Smooth Muscular tissue |
- spindle-shaped cells with NO striations - function in movements of substances of the body - INVOLUNTARILY and found in blood vessel walls and digestive track walls |
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Cardiac Muscular tissue |
- striated cells that occur in the wall of the heart - INVOLUNTARILY and functions in pumping blood |
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Mucous membranes |
line the tubes of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems - loose epithelium which contains goblet cells that secrete mucus that protects the body from invasion of bacteria and viruses |
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Serous membranes |
line the thoracic and abdominal cavities and cover the organs they contain - secrete a watery fluid that keeps the membranes lubricated which stops the spread of any infection |
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Synovial membranes |
composed of loose connective tissue that freely moves joint cavities and secretes synovial fluid that lubricates cartilage at the end of the bones so they can move smoothly in the joint cavity |
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meninges |
membranes within in the dorsal cavity that is composed of connective tissue and serves as a protective covering for the brain and spinal card |
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Negative feedback |
- primary homeostatic mechanisms that keep a variable close to a particular set point - normal body temp is maintained 1. Sensor detects a change in internal conditions 2. Control center directs a response that brings conditions back to normal |
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Disease |
abnormality in the body's normal processes that impairs homeostasis - acute ( poison ivy, flu occur suddenly and last short) - chronic (Aids, cancers develop slowly and last a long time) - carcinoma = cancers of epithelial tissue |
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The human body is divided into what 2 cavities? |
1. Ventral Cavity - divided into the thoracic cavity (the lungs and heart), abdominal cavity (stomach, liver, spleen, etc), and the pelvic cavity ( rectum, bladder, reproductive organs, large intestine) 2. Dorsal Cavity - contains the cranial cavity ( skull, brain) and the veterbral cavity (spinal cord) |
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Integumentary System |
- skin and accessory organs(nails, hair, sweat glands) - Skin = protects tissues, homeostasis, sensory receptors, synthesizes vitamin D -has 2 regions 1. Epidermis (outer protective layer) 2. Dermis (thick layer of skin under epidermis) |
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Homeostasis |
is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment by an organism, or even by a single cell.
body temperature is regulated by NEGATIVE feedback mechanisms, while blood clotting is controlled by a POSITIVE feedback mechanism. |
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arteries |
carry blood away from the heart - cardiovascular system blood vessel |
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veins |
carry blood toward the heart serve as major blood reservoir 70% of blood is in veins of the body -cardiovascular system blood vessel |
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capillaries |
Permit exchange of materials with tissues -cardiovascular system blood vessel |
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pulmonary circuit |
circulatory pathway between the lungs and the heart blood first collects in the right atrium and then passes into the right ventricle which pumps it into the pulmonary trunk which divides into right and left pulmonary arteries where they branch before the lungs circulates blood through the lungs |
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systematic circuit |
circulatory pathway of blood flow between the tissues and the heart -aorta (largest artery) and venae cavae serve as pathways |
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coronary arteries |
serve the muscles of the heart because these muscles are not nourished by blood |
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portal system |
pathway of blood flow that beings and ends in capillaries located between the small intestine and liver - hepatic portal system is associated w the liver |
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How many chambers are found in the heart? |
four |
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Which arteries carry oxygen poor blood |
Superior and Inferior vena casa |
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Functions of blood |
- transporting gases, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body - maintain water balance and pH -regulating body temp -carrying platelets to prevent blood loss and clotting - connective tissue that contains cells within a fluid matrix |
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Plasma |
liquid portion of blood - contains nutrients, wastes, salts, and porteins - foods and fluids we take in contribute to our plasma |
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Formed elements |
- red and white blood cells and platelets - blood cells originate in the red bone marrow - |
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red blood cells (erythrocytes) |
-lack a nucleus and are biconcave discs - shape increases flexibility and surface area for diffusion - transport oxygen because they contain hemoglobin which is the respiratory pigment |
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white blood cells (leukocytes) |
- lack hemoglobin - fight infection and provide immunity -monocytes are the largest |
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What mechanisms regulate the movement of water out of and into capillaries?
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1. Osmotic pressure created by salts and plasma moves water from the interstitial fluid to the blood 2. Blood pressure moves water |
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hemoglobin |
-red blood cells carry oxygen because they contain hemoglobin which is the respiratory pigment |
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anemia |
when the body does not have enough red blood cells or not enough hemoglobin - tired, rundown feeling 1. decreased production of red blood cells 2. loss of red blood cells from the body 3. destruction of red blood cells |
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fibrin |
protein that is involved with blood clotting - traps cells to seal wounds in blood vessels |
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fibrinogen |
necessary to blood clotting |
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hemophilia |
genetic disorder caused by a deficiency of a clotting factor in the blood -almost always occurs in males - bleeding |
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path of blood |
1. superior and inferior vena cava carry O2-poor blood high in carbon dioxide enter the right atrium 2. right atrium sends blood through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle 3. right ventricle sends blood though the pulmonary valve into the trunk and through the two pulmonary arteries to the lungs 4. 4 pulmonary veins carry O-rich blood through the left ventricle 5. the left atrium sends blood through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle 6. left ventricle sends bloods through the aorta to the rest of the body |
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embolus |
if a clot dislodges and moves along with the blood |
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thrombus |
a clot that remains stationary |
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stroke |
when an arteriole in the brain bursts or is blocked by an embolus - lack of oxygen causes a portion of the brain to die - feeling of numbness, difficulty speaking, or blindness |
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mechanical digestion |
begins with the chewing of food in the mouth and continues with the mixing of food in the stomach - occurs in mouth and stomach |
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chemical digestion |
different enzymes break down macromolecules into small organic molecules that can be absorbed - occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine |
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Path of the digestive tract |
Food passes through the 1. mouth 2. pharynx 3. esophagus 4. stomach 5. small intestine 6. large intestine |
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4 layers of the digestive tract |
1. Mucosa (mucous membrane layer) - connective tissue and smooth muscle , contains glandular epithelial cells that secrete digestive enzymes and goblet cells 2. Submucosa (submucosal layer)- loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels 3. Muscularis (smooth muscle layer) 4. Serosa- outermost layer of squamous epithelium that secretes a serous fluid |
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What hormones are secreted by the digestive tract
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-gastrin acts on stomach to increase activity -secretin and CCK produced by the duodenal wall stimulate the pancreas to secrete its digestive juices and the gallbladder to release bile |
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liver |
produces bile which is stored in the gallbladder - largest gland in the body - contains over 100,000 lobules -connects to small intestine by the hepatic portal system to bring nutrients |
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pancreas |
- produce pancreatic juice that contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes stomach acid (exocrine) - endocrine function (secretes insulin and glucagon) |
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gallbladder |
- attached to the surface of the liver - water is reabsorbed so that bile becomes thick, mucuslike material - stores bile |
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Describe why we need carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in our diets.
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Carbohydrates provides glucose which is energy source for the body, and contains fiber Proteins are digested amino acids which transport to the blood stream and synthesizes other proteins (20 essential amino acids) Lipids includes fats, oils, and cholesterol |
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Vitamins
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Vitamins are organic compounds that the body needs for metabolic purposes but is unable to produce, coenzymes - 13 vitamins - Fat Soluble (Vitamin A, D,E,K) -Water Soluble ( Vitamin C, B, Niacin, Folacin, Pantothenic, Biotin) |
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mouth |
- receives food and breaks it into smaller pieces; starts digestion of starch -chemical and mechanical digestion - 3 pairs of salivary glands which produce saliva - sensory receptors (taste buds) on tongue |
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the pharynx |
-connects mouth to esophagus (connects pharynx and stomach); connects respiratory and digestive systems - epiglottis (prevents food from going down trachea) - receives air from nasal cavities and food from the mouth |
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The stomach |
-columnar epithelium lines the stomach - contains gastric pits that lead into gastric glands - gastric glands produce gastric juice (Pepsinogen becomes pepsin, hydrochloric acid, mucus) - gastric ulcers caused by bacteria - stores food - acidity kills bacteria -starts digestion of protein |
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the small intestine |
consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum - chemical digestion and nutrient absorption -villi and microvilli increase the surface area - digests foods and absorbs nutrients - liver, pancreas, gallbladder |
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the large intestine |
absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins - stores indigestible materials until eliminated as feces - absorbs water, stores indigestible remains |
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3 Illnesses due to Vitamin Deficiency |
- Rickets (caused by Vitamin D deficiency) - Pellagra (skin areas exposed to light is caused by niacin) -Scurvy (caused by Vitamin C deficiency) |
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Pancreatitis |
inflammation of the pancreas caused by drinking too much alcohol or gallstones that block the pancreatic duct |
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trypsin |
protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the pancreas while pancreatic amylase digests starch |
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peptidase |
and maltase are enzymes secreted by the surface cells of the small intestinal villi |
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lipase |
digests fat molecules |
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Why do we need calcium, sodium, potassium, and iron?
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Iron - hemoglobin synthesis Potassium- nerve conduction, muscle contraction Sodium- nerve conduction, pH and water balance calcium- strong bones, teeth, nerve conduction, muscle contraction |
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active immunity |
develops naturally after a person is infected with a pathogen - 2 doses of COVID-19 vaccine and become imunne (vaccines mean immunity) |
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passive immunity |
an individual receives another individual's antibodies or immune cells -unborn child receives antibodies from the mother |
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Lymphatic system contribute to homeostasis? |
1. returns excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream 2. absorbs fats from the digestive tract and transports them to the bloodstream 3. defends the body against disease - works with immune system |
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innate immunity |
mechanisms function without previous exposure to an unwanted substance 1. physical and chemical barriers (skin and mucous membranes serve as barrier 2.inflammatory response (tissue response to injury characterized by redness, swelling, pain, heat) 3. phagocytes and natural killer cells 4. protective proteins |
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adaptive immunity |
dependent upon exposure to specific antigens occurs when innate defense fails to prevent an infection - recognizes, responses to, and eliminates antigens which are molecules that stimulate a response -relies on B and T cells |
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Protective proteins |
plasma proteins that amplify inflammatory response and attract phagocytes -can form membrane attack complexes and produce holes in bacterial cell walls |
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Clonal Selection |
states that the antigen selects which lymphocyte will undergo clonal expansion and produce more lymphocytes bearing the same type of receptor - when an antigen binds to receptors that cell is selected and forms clones |
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T cells |
1. helper T cells (secretes lymphokines) 2, Cytotoxic T cells (T lymphocyte that attacks and kills antigen-bearing cells) |
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Antigen-presenting cells |
Cell that displays an antigen to certain cells of the immune system so they can defend the body against that particular antigen |
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Memory T cells |
T cells that differentiates during an initial infection and responds rapidly during subsequent exposure to the same antigen |
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Cell-mediated immunity |
specific mechanism of defense in which T cells destroy antigen-bearing cells |
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immunoglobulin |
A globular plasma protein that functions as an antibody Y-shaped molecules with 2 arms - each arm has a heavy, long polypeptide chain and a light, short polypeptide chain - a constant region that is the same antibodies - the variable region that forms the antigen-binding sites |
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B-cell receptor |
where each B cell has a specific antigen receptor -molecule on the surface of a B cell that binds to a specific antigen -represented by the shape - B cell w green circles undergoes clonal expansion where cytokines secreted by helper T cells stimulate B cells to divide and become clones |
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antibody-mediated immunity |
defense by B cells - specific mechanism of defense in which plasma cells derived from B cells produce antibodies that combine w antigens |
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plasma cells |
Mature B cell that mass-produces antibodies - specialized in the secretion of antibodies |
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memory B cells |
forms during a primary immune response but enters a resting phase until a secondary immune response occurs - cloned B cells -long-term immunity is possible |
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Antibody - shape? 5 classes? |
protein produced in response to the presence of an antigen; each antibody combines with a specific antigen 1. IgG= Main type in circulation, can cross the placenta. Binds to pathogens, activates complement, and enhances phagocytosis 2. IgM = appears in blood soon after a vaccination or infection. Activates complement; clumps cells and is the largest 3. IgA= main type found in body secretions- saliva, gastric juice, mucous secretions. Prevents pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells in the digestive/respiratory tract 4. IgD = appear on the surface of B cells when they are ready to be activated 5. IgE= found as antigen receptors on eosinophils in blood and on mast cells in tissues- responsible for immediate allergic response and protection against certain parasitic worms |
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lymph nodes |
mass of lymphatic tissue located along the course of a lymphatic vessel - connective tissue divides the organs into nodules packed with B and T cells, a sinus |
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edema |
localized swelling caused by the accumulation of interstitial fluid that has not been collected by the lymphatic system - occurs if too much or not enough fluid has drained away |
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pathogens |
disease-causing agents such as viruses, parasitic bacteria, fungi, and animals - macrophages engulf these |
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Clonal selection as it applies to T cells |
In a large population of T cells, only a few cells will have antigen receptors that can react w any particular antigen in the body - when an antigen binds to receptors on a particular lymphocyte - each T cell has a T cell receptor with a designated shape - the T cell undergoes clonal expansion producing many cytotoxic T cells with the same antigen - after that antigen is removed they undergo apoptosis |
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How and why does an allergic reaction occur Allergen? Anaphylaxis? |
IgE releases histamine from mast cells whenever they are exposed to an allergen -histamine causes the nose and eyes to release fluid as a defense against pathogens in allergies |
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What is an autoimmune disease? List those discussed in class or presented in your book.
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cytotoxic T cells recognize the body's own cells as foreign antigens and accidentally attack the body's own tissues - multiple sclerosis -arthritis |
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List immunodeficiency diseases discussed in class and your book. Briefly describe thesediseases. Which ones are congenital (present at birth) and which ones are acquired?
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Destruction of the immune system, by helper T cells and the body cannot protect itself -Aids - HIV |
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Lymphatic system and their 3 functions
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responsible for transporting excess fluid and tissues to the circulatory system - Capillaries (simple squamous epithelium that absorbs the excess fluid) - fluid inside that contains nutrients = lymph |
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Lymphatic Vessel |
1. Red bone marrow and thymus are the main primary lymphoid organs 2. Lymph nodes and spleen are secondary organs- where lymphocytes (white blood cells) become activated |
