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237 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Central Nervous System
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The brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system
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The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.
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Soma
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The cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus
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dendrite
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A branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; recieves information from the termnal buttons of other neurons
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synapse
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A junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrand of another neuron.
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axon
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The long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys info. from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons.
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multipolar neuron
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A neuron with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma
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Bipolar neuron
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A neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma
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Unipolar neuron
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A neuron with one axon attached to its soma: the axon divides, with one branch recieving sensory information and the other sending the info to the CNS.
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Terminal buttons
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The bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends info. to that neuron.
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neurotransmitter
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A chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron.
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membrane
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a structure consisting principilly of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles.
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cytoplasm
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The viscous, semi-liquid substance contained in the interior of a cell.
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mitochondria
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An organelle that is responsible for extracting energy from nutrients. Has own DNA sequence and reproduces independently.
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
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A molecule of prime importance to cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy
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nucleus
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A structure in the central region of a cell, containing the chromosomes.
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gene
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the functional unit of the chromosome, which directs synthesis of one or more proteins.
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cytoskeleton
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Formed of microtubules and otehr protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a cohesive mass that gives a cell shape.
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enzyme
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A molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts. The marriage brokers and divorce judges of the cell.
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Axoplasmic transport
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An active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
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microtubule
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A long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell.
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astrocyte
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A glial cell that provides support for neurons of the CNS, provides nutrients and other substances, and and regulates the chemical composition of extracellular fluid.
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oligodendrocyte
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A type of glial cell in the CNS that forms myelin sheaths
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Myelin Sheath
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A sheath the surrounds axons and insulates tham, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons.
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node of Ranvier
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A naked portion of a myelinated axon, between adjacent oligodendroglia or Achwann cells.
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microglia
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The smallest of glial cells; act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading microorganisms.
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Schwann cell
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A cell in teh peripheral nervous system that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one segment of its myelin sheath.
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blood-brain barrier
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A semi-permeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain's capillaries.
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area postrema
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A region of the medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak; poisons can be detected there and induce vomitting.
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membrane potential
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The electrical charge across a cell membrane; the difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell.
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resting potential
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The membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approx. -70mV in the giant squid axon.
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depolarization
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Reduction (towards zero)of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential.
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hyperpolarization
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An increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting potential.
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action potential
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The brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
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threshold of excitation
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The calue of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action potential.
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diffusion
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Movement of molecules from refions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
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electrolyte
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An aqeous solution of a material that ionizes--namely, a soluble acid, base or salt
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ion
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A charged molecule. Cations are positively charged, and anions are negatively charged.
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electrostatic pressure
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The attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign.
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intracellular fluid
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fluid inside the cell; usually contains potassium K+ and organic anions A-.
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extracellular fluid
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Body fluids outside of the cells. Think sea water...mostly sodium cations NA+ and chloride anions Cl-
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sodium-potassium transporter
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A protein found in the membrand of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell.
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ion channel
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A specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells.
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voltage dependent ion channel
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An ion channel that opens or closes according to the value of the membrane potential.
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All-or-none law
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The principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber.
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rate law
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The principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires.
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saltatory conduction
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Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.
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postsynaptic potential
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Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberations of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
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binding site
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The location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds.
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ligand
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A chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.
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dendritic spine
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A small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse.
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Presynaptic membrane
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The cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
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synaptic cleft
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The space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane.
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synaptic vesicle
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A small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter.
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release zone
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A region of the interior of the presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which synaptic vessicles attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
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postsynaptic receptor
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A receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
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neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel
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An ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a post-synaptic receptor.
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ionotropic receptor
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A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel that opens when a milecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the bindng site.
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metabotropic receptor
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A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
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G protein
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A protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor.
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second messenger
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A chemical produced when a G-protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell.
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excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
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An excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
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inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
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inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
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reuptake
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The reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
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enzymatic deactivation
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The destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release--for example, the destruction of ACh by AChE
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acetylcholine (ACh)
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A neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord and parts of the peripheral nervous system; responsible for muscular contraction.
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Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
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The enzyme that destroys ACh soon after it is liberated by the terminal buttons thus terminating the postsynaptic potential
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neural integration
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The process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
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Autoreceptor
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A receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron.
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presynaptic inhibition
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The action of a presynaptic terminal button in a axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
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presynaptic facilitation
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The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
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neuromodulator
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A naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid.
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caudal
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"Toward the tail"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis away from the front of the face.
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dorsal
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"toward the back"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back.
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ventral
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"toward the belly"; in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body.
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lateral
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Toward the side of the body
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medial
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toward the middle of the body
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ipsilateral
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Located on the same side of the body
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contralateral
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Located on the opposite side of the body.
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cross section
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With respect to the central nervous system, a slice taken at right to the neuraxis.
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frontal section
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A slice through the brain parallel to the forehead.
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horizontal section
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a slice through the brain parallel to the ground.
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meninges
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The three layers of tissue that encase the CNS: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater.
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dura mater
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The outermost of the meninges: tough and flexible
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arachnoid membrane
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The middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater.
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pia mater
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The layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain, thin and delicate.
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subarachnoid space
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The fluid filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater.
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Ventricle
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One of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with CSF
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lateral ventricle
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One of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon.
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third ventricle
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The ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon.
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cerebral aqueduct
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A narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon.
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choroid plexus
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The highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces CSF.
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meninges
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The three layers of tissue that encase the CNS: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater.
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dura mater
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The outermost of the meninges: tough and flexible
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arachnoid membrane
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The middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater.
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pia mater
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The layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain, thin and delicate.
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subarachnoid space
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The fluid filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater.
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cerebral cortex
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The outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
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forebrain
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The most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.
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cerebral hemisphere
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One of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex.
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subcortical region
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The region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface.
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sulcus
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A groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure.
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fissure
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A major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus.
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gyrus
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A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures.
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calcarine fissure
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A fissure located in the occipital loce on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.
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primary auditory cortex
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The region of the superior temporal love whose primary input is from the auditory system.
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lateral fissure
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The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.
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fissure
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A major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus.
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gyrus
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A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures.
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calcarine fissure
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A fissure located in the occipital loce on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.
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primary auditory cortex
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The region of the superior temporal love whose primary input is from the auditory system.
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lateral fissure
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The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.
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primary somatosensory cortex
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The region of teh anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system.
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central sulcus
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The sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
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primary motor cortex
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The region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles.
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frontal lobe
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The anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
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parietal lobe
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The region of teh cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
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Temporal lobe
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The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobe.
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occipital lobe
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The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.
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sensory association cortex
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Those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive info. from the regions of primary sensory cortex.
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motor association cortex
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The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex, also known as the premotor cortex.
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prefrontal cortex
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The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor assoc. cortex.
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corpus callosum
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A large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain.
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neocortex
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The phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex and association cortex.
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limbic cortex
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Phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge ("limbus") of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system
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cingulate gyrus
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A strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum.
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limbic system
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A group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting bundles.
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hippocampus
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A forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system; includes the hippocampus proper, dentate gyrus, and subiculum.
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amygdala
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A structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system.
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fornix
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A fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of limbic system.
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basal ganglia
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A group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system.
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diencephalon
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A region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle, includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
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thalamus
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The largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the hypothalamus, contains nuclei that project info to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive info from it.
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lateral geniculate nucleus
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A group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex.
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medial geniculate nucleus
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A group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex.
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ventrolateral nucleus
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A nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons to the primary motor cortex.
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hypothalamus
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The group of nuclei of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in reg. of autonomic nervous system, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands and integration of species typical behaviors.
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optic chiasm
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An X shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the base of the brain, just anterior to the pituiary gland.
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anterior pituiatary gland
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The anterior part of the pituiatary gland, an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones.
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posterior pituitary gland
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The posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus.
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midbrain (mesencephalon)
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The mesencephalon; the central of the three major divisions of the brain. surrounds the cerebral aqueduct: includes the tectum and tegmentum.
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Tectum
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The dorsal part of the midbrain' includes superior and inferior colliculi.
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brain stem
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The stem of the brain, from the medulla to the diencephalon, excluding the cerebellum
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tegmentum
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The ventrla part of the midbrain; includes periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus and substantia nigra
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reticular formation
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A large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon.
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periaqueductal gray matter
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The region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct: contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors.
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red nucleus
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A large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord.
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substantia nigra
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A darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia.
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hindbrain
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The most caudal of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon
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cerebellum
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A major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containinf the two cerebellar hemispheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system.
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cerebellar cortex
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The cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum.
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pons
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The region os the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain and central to the cerebellum
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medulla oblongata
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The most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately rostral to the spinal cord.
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spinal root
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A bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve.
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dorsal root
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The spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers
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ventral root
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The spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers.
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cranial nerve
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A peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain. 12
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vagus nerve
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The largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system to organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
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somatic nervous system
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The part of the peripheral nercous sustem that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory info to the CNS
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Autonomic nervous system
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The portion of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's vegetative functions.
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sympathetic division
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nodules that contain synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system.
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parasympathetic division
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The portion of the ANS that controls functions that occur during a relaxed state.
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pharmokinetics
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The process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed within the body, metabolized and excreted.
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intraperitoneal (IP) injection
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injection of a substance into the peritoneal cavity-the space that surrounds the stomach, intestines, liver and other ab orgs.
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introcerebral administration
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administration of a substance directly into the brain
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intracerebrocentrucular (ICV) administration
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administation of a substance into one of the cerebral ventricles.
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dose response curve
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A graph of the magnitude of an effect of a drug as a function of the amount of drug administered.
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therapeutic index
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The ratio between the dose that produces the desired effect in 50 percent of the animals and the dose that produces toxic effects in 50 percent of the animals.
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affinity
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The readiness with which two molecules join together.
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antagonist
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A drug that opposes or inhibits the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the post synaptic cell
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agonist
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A drug that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.
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direct agonist
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A drug that binds with and activates a receptor.
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receptor blocker (direct antagonist)
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A drug that binds with a receptor but does not activate it; prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor.
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noncompetitive binding
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Binding of a drug to a site on a receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
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indirect antagonist
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A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and interferes with the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
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indirect agonist
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A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and facilitates the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
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acetyl-CoA
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A cofactor that aupplies acetate for the synthesis of acetylcholine
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choline acetyltranferase (ChAT)
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The enzyme that transfers the acetate ion from acetyl coenzyme A to choline, producing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
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botulinum toxin
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An acetylcholine antagonist; prevents release by terminal buttons
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black widow spider venom
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A poison produced by the black widow spider that triggers the release of acetylcholine
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neostigmine
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A drug that inhibits the activity of acetylcholintransferase...thus inhibiting synthesis of acetylcholine
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nicotinic receptor
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An ionotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated b nicotine and blocked by curare.
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muscarinic receptor
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A metabotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by muscarine and blocked by atropine.
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monoamine
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A class of amines that includes indolamines such as serotonin and catecholamines such as dopamine, norephinephrine, and epinephrine
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catecholamine
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A class of amines that includes the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
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dopamine
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a neurotransmitter: implicated in movement, attention, learnine, and the reinforcing effects of drugs
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L Dopa
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The levorotatory form of DOPA; the precursor of the catecholamines; often used for treatment of Parkinson's b/c of its effects as a dopamine agonist
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nigrostriatal system
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A system of neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in teh nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus
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mesolimbic system
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A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus
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mesocortical system
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A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the prefrontal cortex.
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AMPT
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A drug that block the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of the catecholamines
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reserpine
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A drug that interferes with the storage of monoamines in synaptic vesicles.
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methylphenidate
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a drug that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine
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monoamine oxidase (MAO)
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A class of enzymes that destroy the monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
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deprenyl
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A drug that block the activity of MAO-B; acts as a dopamine agonist
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chlorpromazine
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A drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine D2 receptors.
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Clozapine
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A drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia; apparently by blocking dopamine D4 receptors
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norepinephrine
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one of the catecholamines, a neurotransmitter found in the brain and in teh sympathetic division of the ANS. Implicated in vigilance and attentiveness to events in environment
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idazoxan
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A drug that blocks the presynaptic noradrenergic a2 receptors and hence acts as anagonist, stimulating synthesis and release of NE
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serotonin (5-HT)
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An indolamine neurotransmitter; implicated in regulation of mood, eating, sleeping, arousal, and regulation of pain
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PCPA
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A drug that inhibits the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase and thus interferes with the sythesis of serotonin
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fluoxetine
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A drug that inhibits the reuptake of 5-HT
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fenfluramine
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A drug that stimulates the release of serotonin
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glutamate
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An amino acid; the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
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NMDA receptor
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A specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a calcium channel that is normally blcoked by Mg2+ ions; has several other binding sites
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AMPA receptor
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An ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel; stimulated by AMPA
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kainate receptor
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An ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel stimulated by kainic acid.
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metabotropic glutamate receptor
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A category of metabotropic receptors that are sensitive to glutamate
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GABA
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An amino acid, the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
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anxiolytic
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An anxiety reducing effect
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benzodiazepine
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A category of anxiolytic drugs; an indirect agonist for the GABA A receptor
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glycine
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an amino acid, an important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the lower brain stem and spinal cord.
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adenosine
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A nucleoside, a combo of ribose and adenine; serves as a neuromodulator in the brain
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positive symptom
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A symptom of schizophrenia evident by its presence: delusions, hallucinations, disordered thoughts, and often bizzare behaviors.
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negative symptoms
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A symptom of schizophrenia characterized by the absence of behaviors that are normally present; social withdrawal, lack of affect, and reduced motivation.
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chlorpromazine
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A dopamine receptor blocker; a commonly prescribed antischizophrenic drug.
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clozapine
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An atypical antipsychotic drug; blocks D4 receptors in the nucleus accumbens.
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seasonality effect
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The increased incidence of schizophrenia in people born during late winter ane early spring.
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hypofrontality
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Decreased activity of the prefrontal cortex; believed to be responsible for the negative synptoms of schizophrenia.
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tricyclic antidepressant
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A class of drugs, used to treat depression; inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin; named for the molecular structure
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specific serotonin reuptake inhibitor
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A drug that inhibits the reuptake of serotonin without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters.
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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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A brief electrical shock; applied to the head, that results in an electrical seizure, used therapeutically to alleviate severe depression
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carbamazepine
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A drug(trade name: Tegretol) that is used to treat seizures originating from a focus, generally in the medial temporal lobe
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monoamine hypothesis
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A hypothesis that depression is caused by a low level of activity of one or more monoaminergic synapses.
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5-HIAA
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A breakdown product of the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT)
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tryptophan depletion procedure
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A procedure involving a low-tryptophan diet and a tryptophan free amini acid "cocktail" that lowers brain tryptophan and consequently decreases the synthesis of 5-HT
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anticipatory anxiety
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A fear of having a panic attack; may lead to the development of agorophobia (fear of open spaces)
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cingulotomy
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The surgical destruction of the cingulum bundle, which connects the prefrontal cortex with the limbic system; helps to reduce intense anxiety and the symptoms of OCD
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fight or flight response
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A species typical response preparatory to fighting or fleeing; thought to be responsible for some of the deleterious effects of stressful situations on health.
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glucocorticoid
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One of a group of hormones of the adrenal cortex that are important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism, secreted especially in times of stress.
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corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
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A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the anteriory pituitary gland to secrete ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).
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adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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A hormone released by the anterior pituitary gland in response to CRH; stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids.
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coping response
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A response through which an organism can avoid, escape from, or minimize an aversive stimulus; reduces the stressful effects of an aversive stimulus.
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antigen
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A protein present on a microorganism that permits the immune system to recognize the microorganism as an invader.
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antibody
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A protein produced by a cell of the immune system that recognizes antigens present on invading microorganisms.
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negative reinforcement
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The removal or refuction of an aversive stimulus that is contigent on a particular response, whith an attendant increase in the frequency of that response.
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naltrexone
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A drug that blocks mu opiate receptors; antagonizes the reinforcing and sedative effects of opiates.
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