Biology 110 : Chapter 4

Front 1

in humans metbolizing cells perform funcitons such as

Back 1

digestion

muscle movement

hormone production

Front 2

two types of energy in biology

Back 2

potential energy

kinetic energy

Front 3

potential energy examples

Back 3

chemical energy (stored in bonds)

concentration gradient across a membrane

Front 4

kinetic energy examples

Back 4

light

sound

movement of atoms and molecules

muscle contraction

Front 5

energy allows cells to

Back 5

do work

Front 6

physicists define energy as

Back 6

the ability to do work

-move matter

Front 7

the total amount of energy in any object is

Back 7

the sum of potential and kinetic energy

Front 8

potential energy

Back 8

stored energy available to do work

Front 9

kinetic energy

Back 9

energy being used to do work

Front 10

forms of energy are emasured in units called

Back 10

calories

Front 11

one calories is the

Back 11

amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5c to 15.5 c

Front 12

kilcalorie(kcal)

Back 12

1000 calories

Front 13

two physical laws that describe the energy conversions vital for life and those that occur in the nonliving world

Back 13

-law of energy conservation

-all energy transformations are inefficient because every reaction loses some energy to the surroundings as heat

Front 14

law of energy conservation

Back 14

-states that energy can not be created or destryoed

-energy an be converted to other forms

Front 15

most important energy transformation ins life are

Back 15

photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Front 16

in photosynthesis

Back 16

plants and some microbes use carbon dioxide, water, and the kinetic enregy in sunlight to assemble glucose moleucles

-glucose (carb molecules) contain potential energy in their chemical bonds

Front 17

in cellular respiration

Back 17

glucose molecules change back to carbon diozide and water, liberating the energy necessary to power life

- cells trnaslate the potential energy in glucose into the kinetic energy of molecular motion and use that burst of kinetic energy to do work

Front 18

second physical law of energy

Back 18

all energy transformation are inefficient because every rection loses some energy to the surroundings as heat

Front 19

law that states all energy transformations are inefficient

Back 19

losing energy to heat is inevitable

Front 20

entropy is a

Back 20

measure of the heat energy loss

Front 21

the more disordered a system is

Back 21

the higher its entropy

Front 22

organisms can increase in compexity as long as

Back 22

somthing else decreases in complexity by a greater amount

Front 23

what are some examples of the work of a cell

Back 23

plant cell assemblesglucose molecules into long cellulose fibers

moves ions across its membranes

Front 24

give examples of potential and kinetic energy in your body

Back 24

potential= energy stored in bonds

kinetic energy= muscle contraction

Front 25

what are some energy conversions that occur in cells

Back 25

photosynthes and cellular respiration

Front 26

why does the amount of entropy in the universe always increase

Back 26

because organims are highly organized because the sun is constantly supplying energy to earth

but

entropy of the universe as a whole is always increasing

Front 27

networks of chemical reactions

Back 27

sustain life

Front 28

metabolism

Back 28

encompasses chemical reasctions in cells that build new molecules and that break down exisiting ones

Front 29

each metabolism reaction

Back 29

reaaranges atoms into new compounds

- either abosrbs or releases energy

Front 30

chemical reactions

Back 30

absorb or release energy

Front 31

reactions that build complex molecules from simpler components typically require

Back 31

energy input

Front 32

if a reaction releases energy the ______ contain less energy than the _______

Back 32

products , reactants

Front 33

chemical reactions that release energy

Back 33

break large complex molecules into their smaller simpler components

-cellular respiration is an example (glucose, to co2 and h20)

Front 34

most energy transformations in organisms occur in

Back 34

oxidation reduction reactions

Front 35

oxidation reduction reactions

Back 35

transfer energized electrons form one molecule to another

Front 36

oxidation

Back 36

the loss of electrons from a molecule, atom, or ion

Front 37

oxidation reaction examples

Back 37

glucose to co2 and h20 , rlease energy as they degrade complex molecules into simpler products

Front 38

reduction

Back 38

gain of electrons plus any energy contained in the elctrons

- require a net input of energy

Front 39

oxidations and reductions occur simultaneously because

Back 39

electrons removed from one molecule during oxidation join another molecule and reduce it

- f one molecule is reduced (gains molecules) then another must be oxidized (loses electrons)

Front 40

reactions that require energy

Back 40

bind small molecules with adding energy

Front 41

reactions that release energy

Back 41

divide bigger molecules with taking out energy

Front 42

groups of electron carrying proteins align in

Back 42

membranes

Front 43

electron trnasport chain

Back 43

each protein accpets n electron from the molecule before it and donates the electro to the next in line

-first reduced then oxidized

-energy is released as each step

Front 44

this plays a key role in both photosynthesis and respiration

Back 44

electron transport chian

Front 45

what is metabolism on a cellular level

Back 45

metabolism encompasses chemical reactions that build new molecules and break down old ones

Front 46

which reactions require energy input and which release energy

Back 46

reactions that bind together to make complex molecules typicallly require energy input

reactions that break complex molecule apart release energy

Front 47

what are oxidation and reductino and why are they always linked

Back 47

oxidation is the release of electrons

reduction is the gain of electrons

alwasy linked because electrons are removed from one molecule during oxidation then join another molecule and reduce it

Front 48

what is an electron transport chain

Back 48

electron donor transfers an electron to the first protein and continues to get passed on until a final electron acceptor

Front 49

atp is

Back 49

cellular energy currency

Front 50

covalent bonds of adenosine triphosphate

Back 50

commonly known as atp

- temporarily store energy released in chemical reactions

Front 51

atp

Back 51

type of nucleotide

based adenine, five carbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate groups

-the three phosphates place negative charges very close to one another which makes it unstable so it releases energy when the covlanet bond between the phosphate breaks

Front 52

in eukarotic cells this creates most of the cells atps

Back 52

mitochondria

Front 53

mitochondrion uses the potential energy in the bonds of one glucose molecule to generate

Back 53

dozens of atp molecules in cellular respiration

Front 54

the cell that contain the most mitochondria

Back 54

the most energy hungry cells

-muscles and brain

Front 55

when a cell requires energy for a chemical reaction it spends atp by

Back 55

removing the endmost phophate group

Front 56

adenosine diphosphate

Back 56

the product of hydrolysis reaction (removing endmost phosphate group to use atp)

Front 57

energy can be temporarily stored by adding a

Back 57

phosphate to adp, forming atop and water

Front 58

this is a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups

Back 58

atp

Front 59

this drives the reactions that require energy input

-those that do work or synthesize new molecule

Back 59

atp hydrolysis

Front 60

cells use atp hydrolysis, a reaction that releases energy, to fuel reactions that

Back 60

rewuire energy input

Front 61

cell generate s atp in other reactions

Back 61

such as those that break down food

Front 62

coupled reactions

Back 62

cell uses atp as an energy source by transferring its phosphate group to another molecule

- this transfer may either energize the target molecule making it more likely to bond with other molecules

or

- added phosphate group may change the shape of the target molecule

Front 63

jobs that require atp include

Back 63

tranporting substances across cell membranes

movin chromosomes during cell division

synthisizing the large molecules that make up cells

Front 64

cell can use respiration to

Back 64

rebuild its pool of atp

Front 65

atp represents

Back 65

short term energy storage

Front 66

when atp donates a phosphate group to a molecule the recipient may

Back 66

1. be more likely to bond

or

2. change its shape in a useful way

Front 67

this makes atp too unstable for long term storage

Back 67

high energy phosphate bonds

Front 68

how does atp hydrolysis supply energy for cellular functions

Back 68

atp hydrolysis liberates a phosphate and releases energy which fuels reactions that require energy input

Front 69

descrive the relationship between enregy requiring reactions, atp hydrolysis and cellular respiration

Back 69

cellular repiration creates atp, atp hydrolysis releases energy which fuels energy requiring reactions

Front 70

these speed biochemical reactions

Back 70

enzymes

Front 71

an organic molecule that catalyzes (speeds) a chemical reaction without being consumed

Back 71

enzyme

Front 72

most enzymes are

Back 72

proteins

but some are made of rna

Front 73

many of cells organelles includeing mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, and peroxisomes are

Back 73

speicalized sacs of enzymes

Front 74

a few jobs of enzymes

Back 74

copy dna

build proteis

digest food

recycle a cells worn out parts

catalyze oxidation reduction reaction

Front 75

enzymes speed reactions by lowering

Back 75

the activatio energy

Front 76

activation energy

Back 76

the amount of energy required to start a reaction

Front 77

the ______ brings reactants (substrates) into contact with one another so that less energy is required for the reaction to start

Back 77

enzymes

Front 78

the lower the activation energy the

Back 78

faster the reaction can proceed

Front 79

most enzymes can catalze only

Back 79

specific one or few chemical reactions

Front 80

active site

Back 80

the region to which the substrates bind

-the shape of the active site etermines what enzymes can catalyze

Front 81

reactions do/do not consume or alter the enzyme

Back 81

do not

Front 82

substrates fit into enzymes active sites like

Back 82

puzzle pieces

Front 83

negative feedback / feedback inhibition

Back 83

product of a reaction inhibits the enzyme that control its formation

Front 84

negative feedbacks two general ways of preventing too much of the reaction product from accumulatin

Back 84

1. noncompetitive inhibition

2. competitive inhibition

Front 85

noncompetitive inhibition

Back 85

product molecule binds to the enzymes at a location other than the active site

Front 86

this action alters the enzymes shape so that it can no longer bind the substrate

Back 86

noncompetitive inhibition

Front 87

competitive inhibition

Back 87

the reaction product binds to enzymes active site which prevents it from binding substrates

- competitive because the product competes with the substrate to occupy the active site

Front 88

an enzyme cna become denatured and stop working if

Back 88

ph changes

salt concentration becomes too high or low

temperature is too hot

pharmaceutical drugs

some poisons

Front 89

what do enzymes do in cells

Back 89

copy rna, build proteins, digest food, recycle a cells worn out parts, catalyze oxidation reduction reactions

Front 90

how does an enzyme lower a reactions activation energy

Back 90

an enzyme brings reactants or substrates into contact with one another so that less energy is required for the reaction to start

Front 91

what is the role of negative feedback in enzyme production

Back 91

when the product of a reaction inhibits the enzyme that control its formation, shape, and functionality

-change shape of protein or prevents the substrate from entering

Front 92

this changes the shape of the protein

Back 92

noncompetitive inhibitor

Front 93

this physically blocks the enzymes active site preventing the substrate from entering

Back 93

competitive inhibitor

Front 94

conditions that influence enzyme activity

Back 94

ph

salt concentration

temperature

pharmaceutical drugs

poison

Front 95

potential energy is stored in

Back 95

chemical

Front 96

potential energy is highest at

Back 96

top of mountain

highest point of bulb droping

Front 97

kinetic energy is highest

Back 97

while going down hill

while bulb is falling through space

Front 98

entropy is highest at

Back 98

the drop or breaking of light bulb

Front 99

osmosis is defined as

Back 99

water molecules diffusing through a membrane from a high concentration of water to a lesser concentration of water

Front 100

water molecules being diffused across a membrane from a high water concentration to a low water concentration is known as

Back 100

osmosis

Front 101

these types of molecules will diffuse through the cell membrane the easiest

Back 101

small and nonpolar molecules

Front 102

large and polar molecules have a

Back 102

hard time diffusing across a membrane

Front 103

hypotonic solution has

Back 103

more water to solutes

Front 104

hypertonic solution has

Back 104

more solutes to water

Front 105

red blood cell in a hypertonic solution will

Back 105

shirnk

Front 106

2% acid solution is _______ to a 15% acid solution

Back 106

hypotonic

Front 107

a 13% nickel solution is _______ to a 8% nickel solution

Back 107

hypertonic

Front 108

water moves in and out of the cell at equal rates in this type of solution

Back 108

isotonic

Front 109

this type of energy is stored in chemicals

Back 109

potential energy

Front 110

relations between :

active transport

ATP

energy

concentration gradients

Back 110

active transport uses ATP to form concentration gradients which is stores potential energy

Front 111

processes that decrease the amount of potential energy stored across a membrane

Back 111

facilitated diffusion

simple diffusion

Front 112

=different ways movement across a membrane occurs

Back 112

active transport

passive transport

transport using vesicles

Front 113

active transport

Back 113

net movement is against concentration gradient; requires transport protein and energy input, often from ATP

Front 114

passive transport

Back 114

new movment is down concentration gradient

does not require energy input

Front 115

simple diffusion

Back 115

substance moves across membrane w/o assistance of transport proteins

-goes from area of high concentration to area of low concentration

Front 116

osmosis

Back 116

water diffuses across a selectively permeable membrane from high concentration of water to low concentration of water

Front 117

facilitated diffusion

Back 117

substance moves across a membrane with assistance of transport proteins

-from area of high concentation to area of low concentration

Front 118

this type of diffusion requires transport proteins

Back 118

facilitated difusion

Front 119

this type of transport across a membrane requires energy; typically from ATP

Back 119

active transport

Front 120

transport using vesicles

Back 120

vesicle carries molecules into or out of a cell

Front 121

endocytosis

Back 121

membrane engulfs substance and draws it into cell

Front 122

exocytosis

Back 122

vesicle fuses with cell membrane releasing substances outside of cell

Front 123

endo

Back 123

inward engulf

Front 124

exo

Back 124

outward

Front 125

negative feedback/ feedback inhibition

Back 125

a way to regulate a metabolic pathway

- the product of a reaction inhiits the enzyme that controls its formation

Front 126

two types of negative feedback

Back 126

noncompetitive inhibition

competitive inhibition

Front 127

noncompetitive inhibition

Back 127

a product molecule or inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site whch than alters the enzymes shape so that it can no longer bind the substrate

Front 128

membrane is

Back 128

selectively permeable

does not like polar or large molecules

Front 129

interior of a cel is

Back 129

chemically different from the outside

Front 130

the inside of each organelle in a eukaryotic cell may be

Back 130

chemically quite different from the solution in the rest of the cell

Front 131

concentration gradient

Back 131

solute is more concentrated in one region than in a neighboring region

Front 132

concenration gradient

Back 132

dissipates uness energy is expended to maintain it

Front 133

random molecular motion

Back 133

alys increases the amount of entropy

Front 134

all forms of transport across membranes involve

Back 134

gradients

Front 135

all forms of passive transport involve

Back 135

diffusion

Front 136

diffusion

Back 136

the spontaneous movement of a substance from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated

Front 137

why does diffusion not require energy input

Back 137

because it represents the dissipation of a chemical gradient and the loss of potential energy

Front 138

diffusion occurs because

Back 138

all substances have kinetic energy so they are in constant random motion

Front 139

diffusion appears to stop

Back 139

but the molecules do not stop moving, travel randomly at same rate so at equilibrum the concentration remains equal throuhout the solution

Front 140

simple diffsuion

Back 140

passive transport

moves down its concentration gradient

does not get aid of a transport protein

Front 141

substances enter or leave cells by simple diffusion only if

Back 141

they can pass freely through the membrane

Front 142

lipids and small, nonpolar molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse

Back 142

easily across the hydrophiv portion of a biological membrane

Front 143

cells maintain gradients

Back 143

- by continually consuming the substances as they diffuse in

-by producing more of the substances that diffuse out

Front 144

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Back 144

osmosis

Front 145

isotonic

Back 145

the solute concentration inside the cell is he same as that of the outside

Front 146

if the solution is hypotonic to the cell

Back 146

the external solute concentration is lower than it is inside the cell

Front 147

hypo

Back 147

under

Front 148

hyper

Back 148

over

Front 149

in a hypertonic enviornment

Back 149

a cell loses water shrivels and may even die

Front 150

the net direction of water movement is from the

Back 150

hypotonic solution to the hypertonic one

Front 151

turgot pressure

Back 151

the resulting forced of water against the cell wall

Front 152

lost turgor pressure

Back 152

limp wilted plant

Front 153

helps keep plants erect

Back 153

turgor pressure

Front 154

ions and polar molecules cannot freely cross the hydrophbic part of the phospholipid bilayer

Back 154

so transport proteins form pores that help these solutes cross

Front 155

form of passive transport where membrance protein assists the movement of a polar solute along its concentration gradient and does not need energy because it is going down the concentration gradient

Back 155

facilitated diffusion

Front 156

bacteria, plants, and animals use

Back 156

membrane proteins called aquaporins to increase the rate of water flow

Front 157

this type of transport requires energy

Back 157

active transport

Front 158

in this type of transport -

cell uses a transport protein to move a substance against its concentration gradient

goes from where it is less concentrated to where it is more concentrated

Back 158

active transport

Front 159

cells must contain high conenctrations of ____, and low concentrations of _______

Back 159

potassium, sodium

Front 160

one active transport system in the membranes of most animal cells is a proein called

Back 160

sodium-potassium pump

-uses atp as an energy source to expel three Na+ for every two K+ it admits

Front 161

endocytosis and exocytosis

Back 161

use vesicles to transport substances

Front 162

vesicles used to transport substances

Back 162

are small sacs that can pinch off of or fuse with a cell membrane

Front 163

endocytosis

Back 163

allows a cell to engulf fluids and large molecules and bring them into the cell

-molecules push on cell membrane and the indentation then becomes a indepenedant bubble of membrane that encloses on itself

Front 164

two main forms of endocytosis are

Back 164

pinocytosis and phagocytosis

Front 165

pincytosis

Back 165

cell engulfs small amounts of fluids and dissolved substances

Front 166

phagocystosis

Back 166

cell captures and engulfs large particles such as debris or even another cell

-veiscle then fuses with lysosome where dyrolytic enzymes dismantle the cargo

Front 167

large particles enter a cell by

Back 167

endocytosis

Front 168

white blood cells doing their job is an example of

Back 168

endocytosis

Front 169

exocytosis

Back 169

uses vesicles to transport fluids and large prticles out of cell

Front 170

in exocytosis, the ______ produces vesicles filled with substances to be secreted

Back 170

golgi appartaus

Front 171

vesicle moves to the cell membrane and joins with it releasing the substance outside the membrane

Back 171

exocytosis

Front 172

what is diffusion

Back 172

the spontaneous movement of substances from where there is a high concentration to a low concentration

Front 173

what type of substances diffuse freely across a membrane?

Back 173

-polar, small, and lipid substances

Front 174

how do differing concentrations of solutes in neighboring solutions drive osmosis?

Back 174

the solution differences determine whether the relationship is isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic

Front 175

why does it cost energy to maintain a concnetration gradient?

Back 175

because entropy is always increasing, you must put energy to reverse these effects

Front 176

distinguish between simple diffusion, facilitated diffsuion, and active transport

Back 176

simple diffusion= no protein aid, no energy input, passive transport, polar small molecules pass through easily, moves down concentration gradient

facilitated diffusion= has protein aid, no energy input, passive transport, moves down concentration gradient

active transport= requires energy, moves up conenctration gradient ( goes from low concentration to high concentration), requires atp ususally

Front 177

all cells

Back 177

capture and use energy

Front 178

potential energy

Back 178

stored energy

Front 179

kinetic energy

Back 179

is action

Front 180

energy is measured in units called calories

Back 180

one food calories is 1000 calories or 1kcal

Front 181

energy is converted from one form to another

Back 181

energy cannot be created or destroyed but only converted to other forms

Front 182

every reaction inreases

Back 182

entropy and loses energy as heat

Front 183

the sum of the chemical reactions in a cell

Back 183

metabolism

Front 184

chemical reactions absorb or release energy

Back 184

true

Front 185

in reactions that require energy input

Back 185

the products have more energy than the reactants

Front 186

in reactions that release energy

Back 186

the products have less energy then the reactants

Front 187

linked oxidation and reduction reactions form

Back 187

electron transport chains

Front 188

many energy transformations in organisms occur via

Back 188

redox reactions

Front 189

the loss of electrons

Back 189

oxidation

Front 190

gain of electrons

Back 190

reduction

Front 191

in photosynthesis and respiration, proteins shuttle electrons along

Back 191

electron transport chains

Front 192

cellular energy currency

Back 192

atp

Front 193

_______ stores energy in its high energy phosphate bonds.

cellular respiration generates this

Back 193

ATP

Front 194

cells use the energy released in ____________ to drive other reactions

Back 194

ATP hydrolysis

Front 195

this represents short term energy storage

Back 195

ATP

Front 196

cells store energy as

Back 196

fats and carbohydrates

Front 197

the faulty membrane protein that causes cystic fibrosis may help protect against

Back 197

choler

Front 198

building proteins _______ energy

Back 198

requires

Front 199

ATP hydrolysis _________ energy

Back 199

releases

Front 200

proteins contribution to the function of an electron transport chain

Back 200

they become oxidized and reduced

Front 201

where in a molecule of ATP is the stored energy that is used by the cell

Back 201

in the covalent bonds between the phosphate groups

Front 202

the role of an enzyme in a cell

Back 202

to speed up chemical reactions

Front 203

the active site is unaable to bind substrate

Back 203

in noncompetitive inhibition

Front 204

the movement of water molecules during osmosis is due to

Back 204

diffusion

Front 205

ions and polar molecules need __________ diffusion across membrane

Back 205

facilitated diffusion

Front 206

substances that diffuse freely across a membrane

Back 206

nonpolar, small molecules and lipids

Front 207

concentration gradient is an example of

Back 207

potential energy

Front 208

some people claim that the high degree of organization defies the physical law that says entropy always increases. what makes this statement false?

Back 208

this statement is only valid if organisms are closed

and

organisms can increase in complexity as long as something else decreases in complexity by a greater amount

Front 209

atp is energy currency

Back 209

you spend ATP to fuel chemical reactions

Front 210

how do enzymes speed chemical reactions

Back 210

enzymes copy dna, build proteins, digest food, recycle a cells worn out parts, and catalyze oxidation reduction reactions

- they bind to substrates which then releases the production

Front 211

fat digesting enzymes are not able to digest a artificial fat because

Back 211

artifical fat has a different shape than that of a normal fat so the digestive enzyme would not recognize the artificial fat

Front 212

chemical structure of ATP

Back 212

3 phosphate groups, ribose, adenine

nucleotide

Front 213

how does atp hydrolysis supply energy for cellular function

Back 213

hydrolysis of atp breaks the bond of atps endmost phosphate group, releasing energy

Front 214

atp that is produced in cellular respiration can be hydrolyzed to release energy that can be used to drive endergonic reactions (reactions that require energy input)

Back 214

atp that is produced in cellular respiration can be hydrolyzed to release energy that can be used to drive endergonic reactions (reactions that require energy input)

Front 215

these speed up chemical reactions (catalyze) without being consumed in the process

Back 215

enzymes

Front 216

how do enzymes lower a reactions activation energy

Back 216

enzymes bring reactants into contact of eachother so that less energy is required to start the reaction

Front 217

conditions that effect an enzymes activity

Back 217

pH, temperature, and salt concentration

Front 218

It costs energy for a cell to maintain a concentration gradient because

Back 218

it must move substances against diffusion, which tends to allow gradients to dissipate

Front 219

endocytosis and exocytosis function by

Back 219

binding lipid bilayer that surrounds vesicles with lipid bilayer of the cell membrane

Front 220

endergonic reactions

Back 220

require energy

Front 221

exergonic reactions

Back 221

release energy

Front 222

Enzymes speed chemical reactions by

Back 222

lowering the energy of activation, the amount of energy required to start a reaction.

Front 223

Why does poking a hole in a cell’s membrane kill the cell?

Back 223

cell membrane holds together the cells internal enviornment

-a hole in the cell membrane would allow organelles and dissolved chemicals to leave, and the cell would die

Front 224

diffusion is efficient only over

Back 224

small distances and as long as all parts of the cells interior are close to the surface of the cell

Front 225

the chemical bond energy in ATP is a form of __________ energy

Back 225

potentinal energy

Front 226

example of entropy

Back 226

heat energy being lost at each step of energy conversion

Front 227

an example of kinetic energy

Back 227

sunlight

Front 228

sunlight creates photosynthesis which binds with oxygen to create glucose which then goes to cellular respiration which transforms to potential energy or carbon dioxide and water and then repeats the cycle

Back 228

cycle of energy conversion

Front 229

when products contain more energy than reactants

Back 229

it is a reaction that requires energy input or endergonic reaction

Front 230

when reactants contain more energy than products

Back 230

it is a reaction that releases energy or exergonic reaction

Front 231

an example of a energy requiring reaction

Back 231

photosynthesis

Front 232

an example of an energy releasing reaction

Back 232

cellular respiration

Front 233

example of potential energy

Back 233

glucose