Biol 1108 Test 4

Front 1

Osmotic Pressure

Back 1

imbalance of molecules on either side of the membrane; directly proportional to the number of solute atoms and not dependent on the size of them

Front 2

Osmoregulation

Back 2

process of maintanence of salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body's fluids; movement of excess elec trolytes and wastes are transported to the kidneys and excreted

Front 3

electrolyte

Back 3

a solute that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water

Front 4

hypotonic solution

Back 4

cell placed in low salt enviornment swells with water

Front 5

hypertonic solution

Back 5

cell placed in high salt environment shrivels as water rushes out

Front 6

isotonic

Back 6

equal concentration of solutes inside and outside the cell

Front 7

electrolyte concentration units

Back 7

miliequivalents per liter= ion concentration (milimoles) x # of electrical charges; takes into consideration the number of ions and their charges; set point for body fluids is within 280-300 mOsm

Front 8

euryhaline organisms

Back 8

can tolerate a relatively wide ranfe of salinity

Front 9

osmoregulatory

Back 9

allows for organisms to survive in all kinds of aquatic environments

Front 10

freshwater osmoregulatory

Back 10

bodies tend to take up water due to hypotonic environment so organisms do not drink much water, pass very dilute urine and achieve electrolyte balance by active transport of salts through the gills

Front 11

saltwater osmoregulatory

Back 11

when in salt water hypertonic envioronment water is rushing out of the fish, so kidneys retain water; organisms start to drink salt water & excess salts are excreted through gills and urine (concentrated)

Front 12

osmoconformers

Back 12

organisms isotonic with sea water; there body fluid concentrations conform to changes in seawater concentration

Front 13

kidneys

Back 13

filter blood and purify it; excrete waste, maintain water and recieve hormones

Front 14

urine

Back 14

filtrate coming out of kidneys

Front 15

Kidney tissue layers

Back 15

renal fascia, fat capsule, renal capsule

Front 16

renal fascia

Back 16

outermost layer, tough connective tissue layer

Front 17

fat capsule

Back 17

second layer, helps to anchor kidneys in place

Front 18

renal capsle

Back 18

innermost layer

Front 19

Internal kidney regions

Back 19

renal cortex (outer kidney), renal medulla (middle kindey), renal pelvis (in hillum region)

Front 20

hillum

Back 20

concave part of the kidney where blood vessels, nerves, and the ureter enter/exit the kidney

Front 21

nephrons

Back 21

functional unit of the kidney; made up of renal corpuscle, renal tbule, capillary network

Front 22

renal corpuscle

Back 22

located in renal cortex, made up of a network of capillaries (glomerulus) and bowman's capsule

Front 23

renal tubule

Back 23

proximal convuluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convuluted tubule, collecting ducts

Front 24

filtration

Back 24

almost all solutes (excluding proteins and large cells) are filtered out of the glomerulus due to high blood presure and specialized membranes

Front 25

reabsorption

Back 25

filtrate is collected in the renal tubules and most of the solutes (sodium, glucose, water) get reabsorbed in the PCT due to low blood pressure and high osmotic pressure in capillaries

Front 26

secretion

Back 26

additional solutes and wastes are secreted into the kidney tubules; collecting ducts collect filtrate coming from the nephrons

Front 27

excretion

Back 27

urine is delivered to the renal pelvis and out the ureter; rid the body of nitrogenous metabolites

Front 28

excess nitrogen waste

Back 28

can form toxic ammonia, which raises pH of body fluids

Front 29

urea cycle

Back 29

in terrestrial animals; primary mechanism by which mammals convert ammonia to urea which is made in the liver and excreted in urine

Front 30

uric cycle

Back 30

in birds and reptiles; convert ammonia to uric acid; least toxic but requires most energy

Front 31

loop of henle

Back 31

makes renal medulla salty by actively pumping out salt/ions, this results in water rushing out into the medulla only on one side where there are aquaporins

Front 32

hypoosmotic

Back 32

fewer solutes on the inside versus the outside of the cell

Front 33

hyperosmotic

Back 33

more solutes on the inside versus outside of the cell

Front 34

methanephridia

Back 34

passes through the system if it doesn't pass thoguh the external opening; similar to human intestines; internal opening brings things in and the hole lets things out (annelids)

Front 35

malpighian tubules

Back 35

insects are good at reabsorbing their water; insides have more hemolin; structure is long and thin with no circulation/filtration (terrestrial anthropods)

Front 36

aquatic animal excretion

Back 36

ammonia

Front 37

lipid-derived hormones

Back 37

derived from cholesterol; steroid hormones that are insoluble in water, transferred by transport proteins in blood and remain in circulation longer (estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol)

Front 38

peptide hormones

Back 38

chain of amino acids (ADH, oxytocin, GH, FSH, insulin)

Front 39

amino acid-derived hormones

Back 39

small, synthesized in medulla of adrenal and pineal glands (epinephrine, norepinephrine, melatonin)

Front 40

up-regulation

Back 40

the number of receptors increases in response to rising hormone levels, making the cell more sensitive to the hormone and allowing for more cellular activity

Front 41

down-regulation

Back 41

when number of receptors decreases in response to rising hormone levels, cellular activity is reduced.

Front 42

hypothalamus

Back 42

located in brain, recieves most nerve signals; control center (ADH, oxytocin)

Front 43

pituitary gland

Back 43

below hypothalamus; master gland sends out signals from hypothalamus to the rest of the body; anterior and posterior pituitary have different functions

Front 44

thyroid

Back 44

located in neck; regulates metabolism (T3 and T4)

Front 45

parathyroid

Back 45

regulates blood calcim level (PTH)

Front 46

adrenal glands

Back 46

on top of kidneys; adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla have different functions

Front 47

adrenal cortex

Back 47

produces steroids (cortisol and aldosterone)

Front 48

adrenal medulla

Back 48

produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine)

Front 49

gonads

Back 49

produces hormones involved in development of secondary sex characteristics and processes involved (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone)

Front 50

pancreas

Back 50

not involved directly with piuitary; regulates blood sugar (insulin, glucagon)

Front 51

autocrine hormone

Back 51

function ar cell it is located

Front 52

paracrine hormone

Back 52

functions regionally

Front 53

endocrine hormone

Back 53

functions at distance

Front 54

antidieretic hormone (ADH)

Back 54

excretory system; transported to and released from posterior pituitary; made to regulate the amount of water excreted by the kidneys by making the tubules more permeable to water by temporarily inserting aquaporins

Front 55

aldosterone

Back 55

excretory system; steroid; released and produced by adrenal cortex; enhances sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion from extracellular fluid of the cells of the kidney tubules; stimulated by decrease in blood sodium levels ot blood volume/pressure

Front 56

what happens when the kidneys detect low blood pressure?

Back 56

kidney cells release renin which is an enzyme that reacts with angiotensinogen, a plasma protein in the liver, which converts it to angio I, then angio II in the lungs, which functions as a hormone that causes the release of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex (look at aldosterone to see how it regulates the blood pressure)

Front 57

GnRH

Back 57

reproductive system; produced in the hypothalamus which then stimulates the production and release of FSH and LH in the anterior pituitary

Front 58

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Back 58

reproductive system; stimulates gamete production (maturation of sperm cells ot development of egg cells)

Front 59

LH

Back 59

reproductive; stimulates production of hormones by the gonads (andorgens and estrogens)

Front 60

prolactin

Back 60

reproductive; stimulates production of milk by mammary glands following childbirth

Front 61

oxytocin

Back 61

reproductive; released by posterior piuitary and stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth

Front 62

insulin

Back 62

metabolism; produced by beta cells in the pancreas, which are stimulated to release insulin as blood glucose levels rise. This enhances rate of glucose uptake and causes liver to convert glucose to glycogen which is stored in cells for later use; muscle, fat and liver are main destinations for insulin and have insulin receptors that once activated open glucose transport channels

Front 63

Type I Diabetes

Back 63

immune system attacks beta cells causing them to be unable to produce insulin and high blood sugar damages tissues

Front 64

glucagon

Back 64

metabolism; released from alpha cells of the pancreas which raises blood glucose levels and stimulates breakdown of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)

Front 65

T3 and T4

Back 65

thyroid; transported across membrane of target cells and binds to receptors on mitochondria resulting in increased ATP rates of production and increased rates of metabolism and body heat production; require iodides to be synthesized

Front 66

TSH

Back 66

thyroid; stimulates release of T3 and T4

Front 67

goiter

Back 67

caused by overproduction of TSH without formation of T3 or T4

Front 68

hypothyroidism

Back 68

underproduction of thyroid hormones can lead to weight gain and mental retardation

Front 69

hyperthyroidism

Back 69

overproductioncan lead to weight loss and Grove's disease

Front 70

high blood calcium levels

Back 70

membrane permeability to sodium decreases and membranes become less responsive

Front 71

low blood calcium levels

Back 71

sodium permeability increses and colvulsions/muscle spasms can result

Front 72

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Back 72

regulates blood calcium levels; is released in response to low calcium levels and targets the skeleton (stimulates osteoclasts which causes bone to be reabsorbed releasing calcium from the bone into the blood), intestines (increases dietary calcium absorption), and kidneys (stimulates reabsorption of calcium)

Front 73

calcitonin

Back 73

decreases blood calcium levels by inhigiting osteoclasts, stimulating osteoblasts and stimulating calcium excretion by the kidneys; most important during chilhood, pregnancy, and prolonged periods of starvation

Front 74

growth hormone (GH)

Back 74

produed by anterior pituitary; accelerates rate of protein syntesis (particularally in skeletal muscles and bones)

Front 75

glucose-sparing effect from GH release

Back 75

stimulaties triglyceride breakdown which switches body from using glucose to using fatty acids for energy

Front 76

diabetogenic effect from GH release

Back 76

stimulates glycogen breakdown in liver

Front 77

insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)

Back 77

mediate GH; stimulate uptake of amino acids from blood, allowing formation of new proteins

Front 78

short-term stress response

Back 78

epinephrine and norepinephrine released by adrenal medulla by increasing blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver and skeletal muscles to break down glycogen and also increase oxygen availability by increasing heart rate; prioritize blood flow to essential organs

Front 79

long-term stress response

Back 79

hypothalamus triggers release of ACTH from anterior pituitary which then stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids

Front 80

glucocorticoids

Back 80

increases glucose metabolism/synthesis and have anti-inflammatory properties (cortisol)

Front 81

mineralcorticoids

Back 81

regulate ion and water balance of body (aldosterone)

Front 82

humoral stimuli

Back 82

mechanism of hormone production and release; in response to changes in extracellular fluids (blood glucose levels)

Front 83

hormonal stimuli

Back 83

mechanism of hormone production and release; in response to another hormone (TSH stimulating release of T3 and T4)

Front 84

neural stimuli

Back 84

mechanism of hormone production and release; nervous system directly stimulates endocrine glands to release hormones (short term stress response)

Front 85

anterior pituitary

Back 85

produces tropic hormones, connected to hypothalamus by capillary network

Front 86

posterior pituitary

Back 86

directly connected to hypothalamus; releases and stores hormones produced by hypothalamus (ADH, oxytocin) into blood stream

Front 87

Asexual reproduction

Back 87

produces offspring that are genetically identical to parent

advantages: effective in quick mass production of offspring that will be well adapted to stable environment, allows for mutation, easier colonization of new habitats, requires less metabolic energy

disadvantages: lack of genetic variation decreases adaptability to changing conditions

Front 88

fission

Back 88

asexual; after a period of growth (mitosis), and organism splits into two seperate organisms (sea anenomes, coral polyps)

Front 89

budding

Back 89

asexual; results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals (hydra)

Front 90

fragmentation

Back 90

asexual; the breaking og the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration(sea stars)

Front 91

parthenogenesis

Back 91

asexual; an egg develops into a complete individual without being fertilized; resulting offspring can be wither haploid or diploid depending on process/speices

Front 92

bee parthenogenesis example

Back 92

bees produce either haploid males (drones) or diploid femails (workers); if the egg is fertilized, a queen in charge of mating is produced

Front 93

sexual reproduction

Back 93

genetic material of two individuals is combined to produces genetically diverse offspring that differ from their parents

advantages: allows for better chance of survival based off higher adaptability to unpredictable environments, genetic diseases leave population quicker

disadvantages: maintenance of different sexes can limit ability to colonize new habitats since both sexes must be present

Front 94

hermaphroditism

Back 94

sexual; occurs in animals with both male and female reproductive parts; capanle of both self-fertilization (common in animals with little to no mobility) and mate (worms, slugs, barnacles)

Front 95

Sex determination mammals

Back 95

genetic; XX is female; XY male

Front 96

sex determination birds

Back 96

genetic; ZZ is male; ZW is female (also used in some fish, crustaceans, moths/butterflies, and reptiles)

Front 97

environmental sexual determination

Back 97

not determined by genetics but instead dependent on temperatire during critical egg development period (in turtles warm temperature result in females)

Front 98

protogyny

Back 98

capable of changing sex during life but it female first

Front 99

protandry

Back 99

capable of changing sex during life but is male first

Front 100

external fertilization

Back 100

occurs outside female's body; usually occurs in aquatic environments where both egg and sperm are released in the water (spawning)

Front 101

internal fertilization

Back 101

occurs inside female's body; occurs most often in land-based animals; advantage of protection from dehydration and predation and higher survival rates; disadvantage of less offspring produced

Front 102

spermatheca

Back 102

in some insects; specialized sac that stores sperm for later use, sometimes up to a year, which allows fertilization to be timed with optimal env/food conditions for offspring survival

Front 103

cloaca

Back 103

common in non-mammal vertabarates; body opening for the digestive, excretory, and reproductive system

Front 104

gonads

Back 104

evolved reproductive organs that produce sperm and eggs

Front 105

spermatogenesis

Back 105

occurs in walls of the seminiferous tubules; immediatly under capsule of tubules are undfferentiated cells called spermaogonium; continuous process through life

Front 106

stage one spermatogenesis

Back 106

spermatagonium go through mitosis and one ofspring goes on to differentiate into a sperm cell and the other gives rise to the next generation of sperm

Front 107

stage 2 spermatogenesis

Back 107

meiosis starts witha primary spermatocyte and at the end of the first meiotic division a haplod cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte

Front 108

stage 3 spermatogenesis

Back 108

secondary spermatocyte undergoes another meiotic cell division and produces a cell called a spermatid; once the spermatid reaches the lumen of the tube and grows a flagellum it is called a sperm cell

Front 109

How many sperm cells result from each primary spermatocyte & how long does it take to develop

Back 109

four sperm cells, can take up to 7 weeks to develop

Front 110

gonadotropic hormones

Back 110

cause activation of stem cells to produce viable sperm

Front 111

oogenesis

Back 111

occurs in outermost layers of ovaries; starts with oogenium

Front 112

oogenesis before birth

Back 112

oogonium undergoes mitosis to increase number, eventually resulting in about 1-2 million cells in the embryo (primary oocyte) arrested at prophase of meiosis

Front 113

After puberty oogenesis stage 1

Back 113

the primary oocyte will start first meiotic division when anterior pituitary hormones cause development of follicles in ovaries which allows for primary oocyte to complete first meiotic division; results in a secondary oocyte and and polar body

Front 114

After puberty oogenesis stage 2

Back 114

a secondary meiotic arrest occurs at metaphase II stage

Front 115

After puberty oogenesis stage 3

Back 115

at ovulation the secondary oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized the cell continues thought the meiosis II and produces a second polar body and a fertilized egg

Front 116

when will GnRH be released in adolescence?

Back 116

the body must reach puberty in order for hormones to be released by the adrenal glands that must be present for GnRH to be produced

Front 117

Male Hormones (FSH)

Back 117

enters testes and stimulates sertoli cells to begin facilitating spermatogenesis using negative feedback

Front 118

Male Hormones (LH)

Back 118

enters testes and stimulates the interstistial cells of Leydig to make and release testosterone into the testes and blood

Front 119

serotoli cells

Back 119

produce hormone inhibin and release into blood when sperm count is too high

Front 120

inhibin hormone

Back 120

inhibits release of GnRH and FSH which will cause spermatogenesis to slow down

Front 121

Female Hormones (FSH)

Back 121

stimulates development of egg cells (ova) which develop in follicles

Front 122

Female Hormones (LH)

Back 122

role in development of ova, induction of ovulation, and stimulation of estrdiol and progesterone production in the ovaries

Front 123

progesterone

Back 123

inhibits FSH and LH release

Front 124

Ovarian Cycle

Back 124

governs the preperation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs

Front 125

follicular phase

Back 125

first half of ovarian cycle; slowly rising levels of FSH and LH cause growth of follicles on surface of the ovary, preparing egg for ouvlation; as follicles grow they release estrogen and low levels of progesterone to maintain endometrium to help ensure pregnancy

Front 126

just prior to middle of ovarian cycle

Back 126

around day 12; the high level of estrogen causes FSH and especially LH to rise rapidly then fall and this causes ovulation. The most mature follicle ruptures and releases its egg, the follicles that did not rupture degenerate and their eggs are lost; levels of estrogen decrease

Front 127

luteal phase of ovarian cycle

Back 127

after ovulation (days 15-28); cells in follicle undergo changes and produce corpus luteum which produces estrogen and progesterone to facilitate regrowth of uterine lining and inhibit FSH and LH to prevent further eggs and follicles from developing

Front 128

luteal phase if no fertilized egg

Back 128

corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans and estrogen/progesterone levels decrease which initiates next menstural cycle and allows for hypothalamus to release GnRH to pituitary which will release FSH and LH to start ovarian cycle again

Front 129

menopause

Back 129

(40s-50s); womens ovaries begin to lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH so they cannot produce a viable egg