Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
205 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Food is composed of... |
large complex molecules (polymers) that cannot be absorbed |
|
|
The function of digestion is... |
to transform polymers into absorbable small molecules |
|
|
Small molecules are absorbed... |
in the small intestine by epithelial cells |
|
|
Digestion is regulated by... |
coordinated secretion of fluids, electrolytes and enzymes |
|
|
Food is mostly degraded by... |
Digested enzymes |
|
|
Chewing allows... |
ease of swallowing and increases surface area |
|
|
Saliva is helpful because... |
it lubricates and binds to food making slippery bolus (chyme) and initiates starch digestion |
|
|
starch digestion is initiated by |
enzyme alpha-amylase |
|
|
gastric acid has |
-a pH of 2 -sterilized food -denatures/unfolds proteins |
|
|
protein digestion is initiated by... |
pepsin in the stomach |
|
|
Digestive enzymes are produced... |
in the pancreas and entet the small intestine via the pancreatic duct |
|
|
Pancreatic juice contains... |
-digestive enzymes -sodium bicarbonate, neutralizes stomach acid |
|
|
The liver produces... |
bile, made of bile acids which solubolize lipids making them accessible to be cleaved by enzymes |
|
|
Most metabolites are absorbed... |
in the small intestine |
|
|
Metabolites are only absorbed by cells called... |
intestinal epithelial, brush border, intestinal lining, enterocyte or intestinal mucosa |
|
|
the surface of the small intestine is made up of... |
the duodenum, jejunum and ileum |
|
|
intestinal epithelia have this enzyme... |
endopeptidase and aminopeptidase which furthrr degrade peptides into amino acids |
|
|
Intestinal surface enzymes... |
digest disaccharides into monosaccharides |
|
|
In order to be absorped most nutrients need... |
-dedicated transport proteins -energy |
|
|
once inside the enterocyte, nutrients enter bloodstream through... |
hepatic portal vein |
|
|
once inside the enterocyte, fatty acids 12 carbons or longer... |
move through the lymphatic system to the left subclavian vein |
|
|
The lower part of the small intestine... |
mostly reuptakes bile acids and some vitamins like B12 |
|
|
the large intestine is inhabited by... |
trillions of beneficial bacteria called gut flora |
|
|
gut flora are able to... |
-synthesize vitamins like folic acid/B9 -catabolize tough polymers we can't which are absorbed in colon epithelium |
|
|
the large intestine finishrs absorbing.. |
water and electrolytes |
|
|
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to... |
intracellular receptors which up- or down-regulate transcription |
|
|
water-soluble hormones and neurotransmitters bind to... |
surface cell receptors, which transduce signal by using 2nd messengers |
|
|
the 3 hormones that are key regulators in metabolism are... |
insulin, glucagon and epinephrine |
|
|
The function of insulin is to... |
-promote glucose uptake by cell to store as glycogen or triacylglycerols -promote buildup of fats and proteins, their use as energy source is inhibited |
|
|
Glucagon has greater effect on... |
the liver |
|
|
Muscle cells are affected by which chemical signal... |
epinephrine |
|
|
Glucagon and epinephrine have... |
similar metabolic effects and opposite of insulin |
|
|
the well-fed state promotes |
insulin and storage of energy and glucose |
|
|
enzymes stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine are active when... |
in their phosphorylated state |
|
|
the width of a cell membrane is... |
50 angstroms, made of glycoproteins, glycolipids, proteins and lipids |
|
|
Hydrophobic tails of cellular membrane are located... |
in the apolar core |
|
|
hydrophobic integral components of membrane are... |
locked into the plane of membrane but can diffuse laterally |
|
|
membrane patches are... |
separated from other fluid membrane areas because of unique protein and lipid compositions such as: -protein-protein complexes -lipid rafts -caveloae -pickets and fences |
|
|
fatty acid tails be less fluid if they have... |
-single, saturated bonds -long tails -cholesterol due to reduced phospholipid movement |
|
|
cholesterol impacts membrane fluidity 2 ways... |
-reduces fluidity due to reduced phospholipid movement -resists solidification at low temperatures, keeps membrane liquid |
|
|
Lateral diffusion occurs... |
readily in the lipid part of the membrane bilayer |
|
|
Transverse diffusion occurs... |
-when a lipid diffuses from one surface to the other and is very rare spontaneously -helps keep asymmetey of membrane |
|
|
Flippases are... |
-enzymes that need ATP -move PS and PE from OUTER LEAFLET to Inner Leaflet |
|
|
Floppases are... |
-ATP dependent enzymes -move CHOLESTEROL, PC and SPHINGOMYELIN from INNER to OUTER Leaflet |
|
|
Scrambleases are... |
-calcium dependent enzymes -randomize lipids, degrading the asymmetry |
|
|
Movement of molecules across membrane depends on... |
-MOSTLY the charge of molecule -then the size of molecule |
|
|
Due to the hydrophobic core... |
lipids/hydrophobic molecules easily transverse the membrane |
|
|
Gases, small uncharged polar molecules (urea, ethanol) can... |
freely diffuse across membrane |
|
|
water can diffuse across membrane... |
only partially |
|
|
Glucose, Ions and charged polar molecules (amino acids, ATP, G6P) cannot... |
pass the membrane passively |
|
|
Selective membrane permeability is... |
the regulation of passage through the membrane |
|
|
the 4 main mechanisms of membrane transport are: |
sinples diffusion, passive transport through channels, passive transport using carriers and active transport |
|
|
the simplest membrane transport is... |
unassisted diffusion of solutes |
|
|
Examples of lipid-soluble molecules that easily pass membrane are... |
steroid hormones, drugs, O2 from respiration, and CO3 from expiration |
|
|
Random diffusion results in... |
equal concentrations of solute on both sides of membrane, no matter how great the initial difference |
|
|
The easiest way for water-soluble molecules to travel across the plasma membrane... |
is through channels |
|
|
Channels are... |
-selective, only certain solutes travel through pore -passive, need no external energy only concentration gradient |
|
|
Selectiveness of membrane channels is due to... |
-diameter of pore, acts as a sieve -amino acid side chains of pore which discriminate solutes |
|
|
Membrane channel transport is.. |
-fast -unidirectional -uses concentration and chemical gradients |
|
|
Channels are mostly used for... |
-Charged ions (e.g. Na+) -water |
|
|
Transporters are different from channels because... |
-they bind directly to and move the substance across |
|
|
The activity of a transporter is... |
-measured by the same kinetics applied to enzymes -affected by competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors |
|
|
Transporters are also called... |
-are also called carriers, permeases, translocators, translocases and porters |
|
|
Passive-mediated diffusion/facilitated diffusion is considered... |
-slower than channels -but still at moderate speed |
|
|
GLUT (all glucose transporters except intestine) are an example of... |
passive mediated transporters |
|
|
Active transporters go against.. |
-concentration gradient from low to high -and need energy (either ATP or electrical potential difference) |
|
|
Primary active transport uses energy from... |
ATP |
|
|
Secondary active transport uses energy from... |
-coupling with electrical potential difference, created by Na+/K+ pump |
|
|
The two forms of secondary active transport are... |
-antiport -symport |
|
|
Gap junction communication mechanism is... |
-the simplest -least used form -directly connects cytoplasms of joined cells -allows passage of small signaling molecules like Ca2+ and cAMP -does not allow macromolecules |
|
|
The G-coupled Protein Receptor structure is... |
a single polypeptide, which has 7 alpha helices that span the membrane, known as serpentine receptors |
|
|
GCPRs use... |
2nd messengers for several cellular responses, like *activation of adenylate cyclase which catalyzes 2nd messenger cAMP |
|
|
GCPRs consist of... |
-the receptor -G-protein (trimer: alpha, beta and gamma) |
|
|
Prior to hormone binding, the receptor and G-protein... |
do not interact -alpha subunit of G protein is bound to nucleotide GDP |
|
|
Upon hormone binding to receptor of GCPR... |
conformational change in receptor, interacts with G protein -> conform. change in G -> exchange of GDP to GTP -> disassociation of alpha subunit (GTP still bound) -> finds partner i.e. adenylate cyclase which activates alpha if stimulatory ->signalling terminated by GTP hydrolysis (*self-timer activity) |
|
|
The function of adenylate cyclase is... |
to convert ATP into cAMP |
|
|
Elevated cAMP levels... |
activate PKA, by binding to regulatory subunits which frees up the catalytic portion of cell |
|
|
Once activated PKA will... |
phosphorylate many other proteins by either activating or inhibiting them |
|
|
PKA often sets up... |
a cascade of phosphorylation events |
|
|
In GCPRs, bacteria will often... |
target the alpha/G-protein complex |
|
|
Cholera toxin works by... |
catalyzing the ADP-ribosylation in the alpha sub when it's still bound to GTP -> maintains high cAMP levels -> electrolyte channels open -> ions and H2O escape into lumen and diarrhea |
|
|
The pertussis toxin works by... |
binding to G-inhibitory complex, remains locked in GDP-bound inactive state -> can't inhibit adenylyl cyclase -> unwanted increase of cellular cAMP |
|
|
Enzyme-linked/fyrosine kinase receptors are associated with... |
insulin and GF signals |
|
|
Enzyme linked receptors activate.. |
the tyrosine kinase activity |
|
|
In enzyme-linked receptors, insulin binds to the receptor leading to... |
autophosphorylation of b subunits and phosphorylation of IRS-1 (insulin r sibstrates) -> IRS-1 phosphorylates adaptor molecule -> activates Ras, and MAP kinase signal pathway -> changes in gene transcription -> growth and differentiation |
|
|
Synaptic communication is... |
-immediate -to a target cell -short-lasting -used by nervous system |
|
|
the two types of hormones are... |
-protein/peptides -lipophilic/steroid |
|
|
Examples of peptide hormones include... |
glucagon, insulin, epinephrine and GH |
|
|
two types of lipophilic hormones are... |
-steroid (glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and sex hormones) -non-steroid (thyroid hormone and vitamins) |
|
|
Beta cells of islet of langerhans can... |
-sense blood glucose levels |
|
|
The beta cell does following steps before secreting insulin: |
-glucose in cell is phosphorylated by glyconinase, then oxidated to form ATP -more ATP inhibits K+ ion channels, which close -cell depolarizes results in Ca2+ channels on membrane to open -influx of EC Ca2+ stimulates insulin vesicles to fuse with membrane -insulin secreted extracellularly, into blood |
|
|
Catecholamine and epinephrine are produced by... |
the adrenal glands |
|
|
Glucagon is produced by... |
alpha cells of islets of langerhans |
|
|
Another name for epinephrine is... |
adrenaline |
|
|
Epinephrine results in... |
increased heart rate muscle strength, blood pressure and sugar metabolism (aka flight or fight response), and is stimulated by exercise |
|
|
All classes of hormones require... |
plasma membrane proteins which: 1. prevent destruction by proteases 2. prevent hormone being filtered out = increased half-life |
|
|
Plasma concentrations of thyroid and steroid hormones... |
-are several 100x greater than in water -because of carriers |
|
|
the 4 stages of cell communication are: |
1. signal recognition 2. reception 3. transduction 4. response |
|
|
receptors have the following characteristics: |
-receptors are specific to cell types -are dynamic -number can vary at different times -can he blocked |
|
|
Signal Trandsuction pathway... |
-starts when the signal molecule binds to receptor, altering it -creates a cascade of reactions for protein signals |
|
|
the different signal responses include... |
-turning on a gene -actiavting an enzyme -rearranging the cytoskeleton -activating a transporter |
|
|
Peptide hormone receptors are... |
-located in the plasma membrane -and have 2 domains (ligand-binding and effector domains) |
|
|
the 2 domains of 1st messengers/peptide hormone receptors ensure... |
-specificity to ligand -generation of secondary messengers once ligand binds |
|
|
Peptide Hormone Receptors have these characteristics: |
-Proteins -Highly Specific -Saturable -Non-covalent and reversible binding to ligand |
|
|
The 3 groups of membrane receptors are: |
-ion channel coupled -G-protein coupled/serpentine receptors -enzyme-coupled receptors |
|
|
the main second messengers are: |
-cAMP -Ca2+ -IP3 -DAG -cGMP |
|
|
the effects of 2nd messengers are... |
-activate protein kinases such as PKA, PKC and PKG -affect intracellular Ca2+ levels (i.e. IP3, DAG, cGMP) -can become receptor serine/threonine kinases -can activate membrane-associated and intracellular tyrosine kinases |
|
|
If IRS-1 activates PI3K... |
-different pathway activated -> translocation of GLUT4 -> glucose uptake -possibly involved with activating IREB, proteins that bind to IRE regulatory element in regulatory region of genes |
|
|
Insulin receptor phosphorylation also activates the PLC pathway which... |
activates phosphoprotein phosphatases -> glycolysis, glycogen sx, lipid sx (promotes storing energy) |
|
|
Lipophilic hormones bind to... |
nuclear receptors = ligand-dependent transcription factors |
|
|
The 3 types of lipophlic receptors are... |
1. steroids Rs 2. thyroid Rs 3. estrogen Rs |
|
|
These lipophlic receptors interact with ligand in cytosol |
type 1 = steroid type 3 = estrogen |
|
|
Prior to binding with ligand in cytosol, Type 1 & 3 Rs are... |
occupied with heat shock proteins that disassociate once ligand binds |
|
|
An example of receptor activation is... |
Type 1 & 3 lipophilic Rs which are activated/bind in cytosol then R moves into nucleus |
|
|
Type 2 lipophlic Rs are located... |
in the nucleus, and therefore do not imteract with heat shock proteins -they can bind to DNA in absence of ligand |
|
|
Type 2 lipophilic/steroid-throid Rs have 3 parts... |
1. ligand-binding domain 2. DNA-binding domain 3. transcriptional regulatory domain |
|
|
TSH binds to GCPRs resulting in... |
increased cAMP and PKA -> short-term increased secretion T3/T4 |
|
|
Thyroglobulin is... |
iodinated and absorbed by vesicles of thyroid follicle cells -> fuses with lysosome -> degrades thyroglobulin -> releases T3/T4 |
|
|
Thyroxin-binding protein |
is the carrier for T3/T4, which are hydrophic and undeliverable in plasma |
|
|
Thyroid hormones bind to receptors in... |
-> nucleus and -> ligand/receptor complex binds to TRE of DNA |
|
|
T3/T4 have these effects on cells: |
y -influence BMR, growth, development more directly-affect gene expression for gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, up-regulation protein sx more directly-affect gene expression for gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, up-regulation protein sx -affect gene expression for gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, up-regulation protein sx protein sx |
|
|
the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex converts... |
pyruvate into acetyl CoA |
|
|
Pyruvate is transported... |
to the mitochondria via active transport |
|
|
the first released CO2 occurs... |
in the pyrubate dehydrogenase complex, carbon leaves in fully oxidized |
|
|
Pyruvate DH complex is located only... |
in the matrix more common in cardiac muscle and kidney cells |
|
|
Pyruvate DH reaction is... |
-irreversible because of large free energy -occurs in 4 steps w/ intermediates -> COORDINATION + EFFICIENCY |
|
|
the 3 enzymes involved in Pyrubate DH complex are: |
1. pyruvate DH 2. dihydrolipoyl transacetylase 3. dihydrolipoyl DH |
|
|
the 5 cofactors of PDH complex are: |
1. thiamine pyrophosphate (Vit B1) 2. lipoamide 3. FAD (vit B2) 4. NAD+ (vit B3) 5. CoA (vit B5) |
|
|
PDH complex is regulated... |
-allosterically by ADH, acetyl CoA, long-chain fatty acids = inhibit -enzymes: PDH kinase (allosterically regulated), PDH phosphatase |
|
|
PDH is active... |
when not phosphorylated, inactive when phosphorylated |
|
|
PDH Kinase is... |
-inhibitory -turned on by: ATP, NADH, acetyl CoA -turned off by: ADP, pyruvate, CoA |
|
|
PDH Phosphatase is activated by... |
Ca2+ allosterically |
|
|
TCA inputs... |
Ace CoA + 3 NAD + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O |
|
|
TCA outputs... |
2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + GTP + 2H+ + CoA |
|
|
The purpose of the TCA is... |
1. act as final common pathway of catabolism of nutrients, if O2 source is given 2. takes part in anabolic processes (gluconeogenesis, transamination, deamination and lipogenesis) |
|
|
For TCA, the liver is the only tissue... |
where all anabolic reactions occur to a significant extent |
|
|
Per turn of TCA cycle... |
-2 Carbon atoms enter (acetyl CoA) -2 Carbon atoms released (CO2×2) -4 redox rxn: 3 hydride/6 electrons to NAD+, 1 hydride/2 electrons to FAD -1 GTP formed ATP total: 12 ATP/ace CoA |
|
|
In the TCA cycle, oxygen... |
is not needed directly, but is NECESSARY so that NAD+ and FAD are regenerated |
|
|
In TCA, the DH enzymes |
-are most important for regulation -produce reduced coenzymes |
|
|
In the 1st step of TCA oxaloacetate and ace CoA... |
combine in a very energetically favorable rxn (G=-31 kj/mol) |
|
|
Succinate DH is... |
-involved with TCA -converts/oxidizes succinate to fumerate -reduces FAD -> FADH2 -in the INNER MITO membrane and directly linked to ETC |
|
|
Promoters for the TCA are: |
-supply of acetyl CoA -NAD+ and FAD for DH rxn, which are terminally oxidized -ADP+Pi -O2 |
|
|
Conditions that disrupt TCA are... |
lack of: -oxygen flow -ADP -source of reducing agents |
|
|
the 3 most important regulatory DH enzymes are... |
-citrate synthase -isocitrate DH -alphaketoglutarate DH |
|
|
Intermediates of the TCA are... |
Citrate Isocitrate Ketoglutarate Succinyl-CoA Succinate Fumerate Malate Oxaloacetate (Citrate Is Kreb's Starting Substrate For Making Oxaloacetate) |
|
|
The combination of electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation is... |
terminal oxidation in the mitochondria |
|
|
electron transport is... |
specialized electron carriers transferring energy-rich electrons from reduced co-enzymes (NADH, FADH2) to oxygen |
|
|
In the ETC H+ are pumped from.. |
against their concentration gradient -mitochondrial matrix into inter-membraneous space |
|
|
Oxidative phosphoration is... |
when H+ from inter-memb space flow back into mitochondrial matrix, generating ATP |
|
|
Redox rxn occurs when... |
electrons are transferred from electron donor (reductant) to electron acceptor (oxidant) |
|
|
The electromotive force (E0) is.. |
-the capacity for electron donor to give up its electrons to its acceptor -aka oxidation-reduction potential in Volts |
|
|
The sequence of electron transfer begins with... |
redox pairs that lose electrons more easily (bigger, more negative E0 force) |
|
|
The sequence of electron transfer ends with... |
redox pairs that have greatest ability to accept protons (biggest, most positive E0 potential) |
|
|
In redox terms catabolism is ... and anabolism is... |
catabolism = oxidative anabolism = reductivr |
|
|
In the ETC, NADH oxidation involves the following complexes... |
I, III, IV |
|
|
In the ETC, FADH2 oxidation involves the following complexes... |
II, III, IV |
|
|
The ETC consists of... |
-4 large enzyme complexes (I-IV) -2 electron-transferring molecules: Coenzyme Q and Cytochrome c |
|
|
The ETC Complexes contain... |
-redox enzymes, coenzymes and metal ions |
|
|
3 of the 4 complexes contain... |
iron-sulfur (Fe-S) as iron is readily oxidized/reduced |
|
|
In order to work properly, the ETC needs this from food... |
-Vitamins (NAD, FAD, FMN) -Minerals (Fe, Cu) |
|
|
Complex I has the following enzymes/molecules... |
-NADH DH/NADH-Coenzyme Q Reductase -Co-enzyme Q |
|
|
The following rxns occur in Complex I... |
1. NADH -> NAD+ + H+ + 2e- 2. Q+ 2e- + 2H+ -> QH2 3. 4H+ (matrix) -> 4H+(inter-membrane) Net = NADH + Q + 5H+(matrix) -> NAD+ + QH2 + 4H+(inter-membrane) |
|
|
Complex II has the following enzymes... |
Succinate DH/Succinate CoQ Reductase |
|
|
The net reaction for Complex II is... |
Succinate + Q -> fumerate + CoQH2 |
|
|
CoQH2 results from... |
FADH2 produced in TCA from succinate DH -> FADH2 reduces CoQ -> CoQH2 |
|
|
Complex II, is unique in that the following does not occur... |
pumping of protons from matrix into membraneous space |
|
|
the P/O ratio is... |
-the amount of ATP produced from 2 e- moving through ETC -dependent on # of H+s which return via ATP synthase |
|
|
It is thought the oxidation of NADH... |
produces more ATP than FADH2 |
|
|
cytochrome c can only... |
hold 1 electron, so CoQH2/2 Cyto C |
|
|
Net rxn for Complex III is... |
CoH2 + 2 cyto c (Fe3+) + 2H+ (matrix) -> CoQ + 2 cyto c (Fe2+) + 4H+ (intermembrane) |
|
|
cytochrome c is the only... |
-water-soluble cytochrome |
|
|
the role of cyotchrome c is to... |
transfer electrons from complex III -> complex IV |
|
|
Complex IV is also known as... |
Cytochrome C Oxidase |
|
|
For each Cyto C... |
2 H+s are pumped into inter-membrane space |
|
|
The net rxn for Complex IV is... |
4 Cyt c (reduced) + 8H+(matrix) + O2 -> 4 Cyt C (oxidized) + 2H2O + 4H+ (cytosol) |
|
|
The electron flow from Fe-S clusterd to Q can be... |
-inhibited by chemical compounds -examples include: amytal, rotenone |
|
|
Amytal is... |
a barbituate that disrupts transfer of electrons in complex I, targeting FMN -> CoQ |
|
|
Rotenone is... |
an insectide from a plant/antibiotic/myxithiazol which inhibits electron transfwr from Fe-S clusters to Q, blocking oxidative phosphorylation |
|
|
Cytochrome c is inhibited by... |
Cynanide and carbon monoxide |
|
|
Cyanide is especially potent, fast-acting and dangerous because... |
it binds to Fe3+ in heme of cyto c oxidase (IV) -> oxygen can't bind to enzyme and accept electrons |
|
|
The chemiosmotic hypothesis first suggested... |
the ETC generated a proton gradient/pH gradient/membrane potential that provides the proton-motive force which is used to synthesize ATP |
|
|
The F0 portion of F1F0 ATPase makes... |
the membrane permeable to protons so they ca flow back into the matrix |
|
|
The F1 portion of F1F0 ATPase contains... |
the ATPase and ATP sx occurs on F1 surface |
|
|
the function is ATP/ADP translocase is... |
to shuttle ATP out of mitochondria and bring in ADP |
|
|
the ATP/ADP translocase uses this trnasport system |
antiport system, ecchanging ATP for ADP |
|
|
the ATP/ADP shuttle is considered... |
electrogenic (-1), consuming energy to exchange ATP for ADP |
|
|
the 2 inhibitors for ATP/ADP shuttle are... |
atractyloside (Mediterranean pine thistle poison) and bongkrekic acid (mold from fermented coconut consumed in SE asia) |
|
|
Phosphate carrier imports... |
H2PO4- into mitochondria, with symport of H+ (electroneutral but alters proton gradient) |
|
|
In brown adipose tissue the protons from the gradient... |
-are uncoupled from ATP synthase -flow through UCP-1 |
|
|
UCP-1 (thermogenin) creates... |
proton leak, which doesn't capture energy of proton flow back into matrix -> energy is released as heat |
|
|
the dissipative proton pathway is... |
activated when core body temp falls -> relases hormones -> triggers release of free fatty acids -> acitvate UCP-1 |
|
|
2,4 dinitrophenol (DNP)... |
-uncouples ETC from OxPhos -used for weight loss -> too dangerous |
|
|
the respiratory control or acceptor control is... |
the regulation of rate of OxPhos from ADP level |
|
|
ETC is tightly coupled to... |
phosphorylation of ADP |
|
|
In active muscle tissue high ADP concentration is needed... |
to meet ATP demands of muscle |
|
|
ATP has what effect on TCA? |
decreases TCA because ATP inhibits DH enzymes |
|
|
Ischemia is... |
restriction in blood supply, causing shortage of oxygen to tissues |
|
|
In addition to oxygen depletion, ischemia results in reduced... |
availability of nutrients and inadequate removal of wastes |
|
|
In an ischemic state, without oxygen the cell compensates by... |
increasing anaerobic glycolysis -> increase lactic acid -> decrease cellular pH -> cell dies |
|
|
Anabolism is this type of redox... |
reductive (since agents are being oxidized) |
|
|
Catabolism is this type of redox... |
Oxidation since agents are being reduced |
|
|
All of these metabolic processes occur in the mitochondria... |
-B-oxidation -Ketogenesis -ETC -part of urea cycle |
|
|
Enzymes activated by insulin are active in... |
their non-phosphorylated form |
|
|
The storage pathways all promoted by insulin are... |
-glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue -glycolysis -glycogenesis -protein synthesis -lipogenesis |
|
|
Energy use pathways promoted by epinephrine and glucagon are... |
-Gluconeogenesis -Glycogenesis -Lipolysis -Ketogenesis -Beta-ox |
