Bio Test 4

Front 1

Scientific fact

Back 1

has occurred and is occurring, never accepted 100%

Front 2

theory

Back 2

processes by which evolution has occurred and continues to occur

Front 3

Levels of evolution

Back 3

1) Physical- origin of universe and Earth
2) Chemical- origin of life
3) Biological- origin of diversity
4) Cultural- origin of human social structure

Front 4

Physical (levels of evolution)

Back 4

origin of universe and Earth

Front 5

Chemical (levels of evolution)

Back 5

origin of life

Front 6

Biological (levels of evolution)

Back 6

origin of diversity

Front 7

Cultural (levels of evolution)

Back 7

origin of human social structure

Front 8

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

Back 8

French, early 1800s- inheritance of acquired characteristics- disproven

Front 9

Darwin

Back 9

studied finches on Galapegoes Islands

Front 10

On the Origin of Species

Back 10

1859
 First printing sold out in 1 day
 Introduced concept of natural selection as mechanism of evolutionary change
 In 1900s, Mendel’s work rediscovered
 Modern Synthesis- 1940s
 Microevolution
 Macroevolution

Front 11

Microevolution

Back 11

adaption in populations

Front 12

Macroevolution

Back 12

evolution of new species

Front 13

Darwin's theory

Back 13

descent with modification
part 1: reproduction
part 2: variation
part 3: struggle for existence
part 4: natural selection

Front 14

Continuous variation

Back 14

o Continuous- numerous, intergraded phenotypes in population
 Bell curve
 Human height

Front 15

Discontinuous variation

Back 15

discontinuous

* many, discreet phenotypes in population
* no pattern seen in graphs
* human ABO blood types

Front 16

Struggle for existence

Back 16

* more offspring produced than can be sustained
* members of a population show variation
* must compete for limited resources and mates
* what decides which will compete successfully?

Front 17

Natural Selection

Back 17

* organisms whose genotypes result in a phenotype that better adapts them to their environment
o beneficial mutations or advantageous gene combinations
* reproduce and add disproportionately to gene pool of next generation
o compete for /utilize resources and space
o avoid predators and disease
o attract mates
o develop advantageous associations: mutualisms

Front 18

artificial selection

Back 18

used by darwin as a model for natural selection with pigeon breeding

Front 19

Herbert Spencer

Back 19

survival of the fittest

Front 20

_______ acts as a filter of natural selection

Back 20

environment

natural selection:
* responds to:
o immediate environment
o predictable environment
* cannot plan for unusual or long term events
* change in environment changes favored variations
o what is adaptive in one environment may not be in another

Front 21

"Selection for"

Back 21

greater reproductive potential

Front 22

"Selection against"

Back 22

less reproductive potential

Front 23

Stabilizing Selection

Back 23

* average or mean phenotype is selected for and the extremes are selected against
* classic example:
o extreme low birth weight babies and extreme high birth weight babies have lower survival rates (i.e., are selected against); average weight babies have higher survival rates (i.e., are selected for)
* effect: average phenotype stays the same over time

Front 24

Directional Selection

Back 24

* one extreme are selected for or against
* classic example:
o peppered moths (Biston betularia)
o two forms: gray and black
+ gray form better camouflaged on trees from hungry birds
o before 1840’s in England - gray more common
o after 1840’s, Industrial Revolution
o trees turned black with soot, black form now camouflaged and became the more common form
* effect: average phenotype shifts directionally

Front 25

Diversifying or Disruptive Selection

Back 25

* average phenotype is selected against and the extremes are selected for
* example:
o African butterflies
o members of a widely dispersed, tasty species will locally mimic various other unpalatable species
o within the population there are several phenotypes
* effect: the population shows a variety of distinct phenotypes, with a least a bimodal distribution

Front 26

Hardy-Weinberg Theorem

Back 26

* measure of genetic change in a population

# assumes:

* no selection
* no mutation
* no migration
* large population
* random mating

# predicts:

* no change in gene frequency in population

Front 27

Population Change

Back 27

* If change is seen, one or more H-W assumptions must be violated
* Evolution: change in gene frequency in a population over time
* population phenomenon
o individuals cannot evolve

Front 28

Speciation

Back 28

evolution of a new species

origin of isolating mechanisms

Front 29

species

Back 29

a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that cannot interbreed with other such groups

Front 30

prezygotic

Back 30

prevent mating - examples:

* geographical - separated by geographical barriers
* mechanical - genitalia do not fit
* behavioral - different mating behaviors

Front 31

postzygotic

Back 31

offspring cannot reproduce

* hybrids sterile (mule)
* hybrids inviable - embryos abort (goats and sheep)
* hybrid breakdown - next generation not viable

Front 32

Allopatric

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* geographical barrier separates populations
* no interbreeding
o each with unique mutations
o each facing unique selection
* over time --> diverge and cannot interbreed

Front 33

Sympatric

Back 33

* new species arises without geographical isolation
* new species in a single generation
* polyploidy - doubling of chromosome number
o irregular mitosis or meiosis
o can only interbreed with itself
o common in plants

Front 34

Adaptive Radiation

Back 34

* proliferation of species from a common ancestor by adaptation to various niches
* small founder population invades a new territory
o few competitors
o ==>variation, new niches
o ==>inbreeding and isolation
o ==>speciation
* Darwin’s finches on Galapagos Islands

Front 35

Phylogeny

Back 35

* evolutionary lineage
* tracing a phylogeny
o biogeography -geographic distribution
o paleontology - fossil record
o comparative anatomy
+ homologous organs - similar due to common descent
+ analogous - similar function, different origin
o molecular homology
o chromosomal homology

Front 36

Earth is...

Back 36

4.6 billion years old

Front 37

Universe is...

Back 37

14-15 years old

Front 38

Oldest fossil

Back 38

3.6 billion years old
bacterialike
eukaryote

Front 39

earthly atmosphere in beginning

Back 39

methane, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, water vapor

no oxygen

Front 40

Miller

Back 40

sparks in experimental atmosphere

1 week --> amino acids, sugars; nucleic acid bases, lipids found by others

Front 41

Origin of Life: Membranes

Back 41

* lipids and proteins will spontaneously form semipermable membranes
* form into enclosed droplets called coacervates
* coacervates will “grow” and “multiply” although this only mimics living systems
* may be a prototype for very early pre-cells

Front 42

stumbling blocks

Back 42

* polymerization of amino acids to protein
o may occur on hot wetting/drying surfaces
o may occur on clay crystals(life from dust of Earth?)
o controversial
* polymerization of nucleic acids and origin of genetic code
o possibly the first genes were RNA, not DNA

Front 43

Origin of Life

Back 43

RNA trapped in protocell membrane may have been first (VERY simple) cell

Front 44

Origin of Life - Mars

Back 44

* Recent discoveries in Martian meteorite
* 3 lines of evidence
o organic material in shape of bacteria
o iron residues in form associated with life
o PAH residues associated with life, clustered on the rock

Front 45

sexual reproduction

Back 45

mitosis and meiosis

Front 46

asexual

Back 46

mitosis only

Front 47

animal life cycle

Back 47

gametes, fertilization, zygote, mitosis, development/growth, adult, gonad, meiosis

Front 48

animals: some organisms use both _____ and _____ reporduction

Back 48

sexual and asexual

Front 49

sperm is produced in the _____ by ______

Back 49

testis (male) and ovary (female) by meiosis

Front 50

oviducts

Back 50

carry eggs from ovary

Front 51

uterus

Back 51

site of embryonic devlopment

Front 52

hermaphrodite

Back 52

one individual with both sex organs

earthworm, sea slugs

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external transfer of sperm to egg

Back 53

usually in equatic animals
sperm and egg released into environment

Front 54

internal transfer of sperm to egg

Back 54

sperm placed in female tract

variety of mechanisms
- sperm packet for spiders
- penis

Front 55

Development

Back 55

egg and sperm, fertilization, zygote, embryo

Front 56

fertilization

Back 56

- fusion of one sperm and egg
- activates development process
- egg becomes instantaneously unreceptive to other sperm

Front 57

zygote

Back 57

* single cell from fusion of egg and sperm (by definition)
* sperm contributes only nucleus to cell, all other sperm cell structures degraded by zygote
* cytoplasmic organelles derived from egg only, i.e. from mother
o trace mitochondrial DNA to original modern human population
o possible African origin 200,000 years ago

Front 58

development (animal reproduction)

Back 58

* zygote begins to divide by mitosis
o cleavage
* ball of cells same diameter as egg
o subdivides cytoplasm
* embryo
o from 2 cells onward in early development
o nutrients provided by female parent
o develops by mitosis
* solid ball of 16 cells = morula

gastrulation
* invagination form at one point on hollow sphere
* like a finger poking into a balloon

* invagination reaches opposite side and fuses
* hollow tube through sphere = gastrula

Front 59

blastula

Back 59

hollow ball of cells

Front 60

gastrulation

Back 60

* invagination form at one point on hollow sphere
* like a finger poking into a balloon

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archenteron

Back 61

archenteron

Front 62

endoderm

Back 62

inner tube

Front 63

ectoderm

Back 63

outer sphere

Front 64

openings (development)

Back 64

mouth and anus

Front 65

ectoderm (development)

Back 65

skin and nervous tissue

Front 66

mesoderm (development)

Back 66

muscle, bone, other organs

Front 67

endoderm (development)

Back 67

lining of gut, lungs, other digestive organs

Front 68

gastrula (development)

Back 68

growing embryo with developing organs

Front 69

Overall of development

Back 69

zygote, cleavage, morula, blastula, gastrulation, gastrula, 3 germ layers, developing embryo

Front 70

male gonads =

Back 70

testes, in scrotum
paired, external to body cavity
sperm production is temperature sensitive

Front 71

varicocoele

Back 71

varicose veins in scotum
raises temp and reduces sperm count

Front 72

epididymis

Back 72

stores sperm
adjacent to testis

Front 73

vas deferens

Back 73

sperm duct
over bladder and to urethra
paired
vasectomy = cut and tied

Front 74

urethra (male)

Back 74

common duct for urine and semen

Front 75

penis

Back 75

copulatory organ;
shaft, prepuce (foreskin), glans
rich supply of nerve endings

Front 76

glands (glands) (sets)

Back 76

add fluid to semen
3 sets:
- seminal vesticles
- prostate gland (majority of fluid), prone to cancer
- bulbourethral glands

Front 77

Spermatogenesis

Back 77

* occurs in seminiferous tubules of testes
* 1 mother cell --> 4 sperm
o meiosis and sperm maturation 65-75 days
o continuous from puberty onward
* fertility
o fertile: 100 million sperm/cc
o infertile: <40 million sperm/cc
o sterile: no sperm present

Front 78

infertility (male)

Back 78

low/no sperm count
causes of infertility/sterility

* varicocoele-varicose veins within the scrotum
o raised temperature around testes
o repaired by tying off some veins to reduce blood flow
* vasectomy
o cut and tie vas deferens
* radiation, chemicals
o cancer treatment

Front 79

Semen

Back 79

mix of sperm (5%) and glandular fluids (95%)

alkaline to counteract acidity of vagina

Front 80

Steps of Ejaculation

Back 80

* Stage 1
o rhythmic contractions of epididymis, vas deferens, prostate
* Stage 2
o rhythmic contractions of urethra and surrounding muscles
* orgasm very stereotyped in males
o tends to occurs in a similar fashion in all males

Front 81

Hormonal Control-Male
Before birth

Back 81

* human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) from placenta stimulates testes to produce testosterone

---> primary sex characteristics:

* genitalia and sex organs

at birth, testes become dormant for 10-15 years

Front 82

Testosterone- secondary sex characteristic

Back 82

* genitals enlarge
* voice deepens
* beard and body hair
* baldness
* muscles enlarge - anabolic effect

Front 83

Anabolic Steroids

Back 83

* illegal- used to increase muscle mass
* analogs of testosterone
* must be in greater than ambient amounts for “desired ”muscle enlargement
o inhibition of testosterone and sperm production
o testicular atrophy (testes shrink in size)
o body organ damage (esp. liver and kidney)
o injected
+ shared used of syringe can transmit HIV
+ uncertain origin of drug-suppliers not pharmacists!

Front 84

ovaries=

Back 84

gonads
* paired, in body cavity, 1 in. long
* produces hormones and eggs
* connective tissue and primary oocytes
* eggs develop to prophase I before birth and “freeze” at that stage until ovulation

Front 85

fallopian tubes =

Back 85

oviducts
* transport egg to uterus
* site of fertilization
* open into body cavity
* fimbrae surround ovary and sweep egg into oviduct
* tubal ligation
o fallopian tubes cut and tied
o renders woman sterile

Front 86

uterus

Back 86

# muscular sac (smooth muscle)
# above bladder
# inner lining = endometrium

* enriches with blood vessels for pregnancy

Front 87

cervix

Back 87

* opening (os) from uterus to vagina
* diam. of a pencil
* entry of sperm; birth of baby
* filled with mucous that thins at ovulation to permit sperm to enter - protection against bacteria

Front 88

vagina

Back 88

* receive penis (semen) in copulation
* birth canal
* contains glands for lubrication at copulation

Front 89

external genetalia

Back 89

vulva

* mons pubis
* labia majora - external
o contain erectile tissue
o homologous to scrotum
* labia minora - internal to labia majora
o surround vaginal opening

Front 90

vulva

Back 90

* clitoris
o homologous to glans
o rich supply of nerves
* urethral opening
* hymen
o covering over vaginal opening
o may be ruptured in first intercourse or sports, etc.

Front 91

female sexual response

Back 91

- labia majora becomes erectile
- vagine secretes lubricant
- orgasm

Front 92

stages in both sexes

Back 92

1) excitement
2) plateau
3) orgasm
4) resolution

Front 93

oogenesis

Back 93

1 mother cell --> 1 functional egg

Front 94

ovulation:

Back 94

day 14
basal body temperature increases about .5 C
body temperature upon waking
basis for natural family planning

ovulation kit measures levels of LH

Front 95

LH Surge

Back 95

Day 13

Front 96

pregnancy

Back 96

implantation in endometrium on day 19-21
4-7 days from fertilization to implantation
embryo forms early placenta

Front 97

pregnancy steps

Back 97

corpus luteum, prosterone, maintains, embryo-placenta, HCG

Front 98

early embryo (human development)

Back 98

blastocyst
5 days at implantation
inner mass, embryo proper
trophoblast, chorion and placenta

Front 99

extraembryonic membranes

Back 99

part of embryo

o chorion = outer sac, from trophoblast
o amnion = inner sac, from inner mass
o contains fluid = amniotic fluid
+ some fetal cells in fluid
+ removal for amniocentesis

Front 100

embryo structures:
allantois
yolk sac
umbilical cord

Back 100

* allantois
o early kidney
o from inner mass
* yolk sac
o stores germline cells
o from inner mass
* umbilical cord
o formed in part from all extraembryonic structures
o connects at abdomen --> navel scar

Front 101

placenta (associated with embryo)

Back 101

* interface between mother and embryo
* exchange of nutrients, gases, and wastes
* fetal and maternal blood separated by membranes, do not mix
* drugs, antibodies, viruses but not bacteria cross placenta
o cuation should be used with all drugs beucase they can cross the placenta and possibly affect the developing embryo/fetus

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first trimester

Back 102

implantation
organogenesis (organs form)
embryo very susceptible to drugs and disease

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second trimester

Back 103

embryo becomes fetus
ossification of bones
movement
organ maturation

Front 104

third trimester

Back 104

period of growth
progesterone and estrogone trigger production of relaxin and prolactin in mother

Front 105

relaxin

Back 105

loosens ligaments and allows pelvis to open for birth

Front 106

prolactin

Back 106

stimulates milk production

Front 107

birth

Back 107

fetus moves w/ head at the cervix
three stages:
1) contractions- 'water breaks'
2) expulsion of baby
3)expulsion of placenta

Front 108

sexual reproduction (plants)

Back 108

# overall very similar to animals but with a few important differences
# details used in classification of plants
# commercially important

* alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid phases in the life cycle
* diploid phase called sporophyte
* haploid phase called gametophyte
* Example: the fern

Front 109

asexual reproduction (plants)

Back 109

# vegetative
# commercially important

Front 110

diploid phase

Back 110

sporophyte

Front 111

haploid phase

Back 111

gametophyte

Front 112

sporophyte

Back 112

# 3 and 4 in the fern life cycle diagram
# diploid phase, often the most conspicuous phase

*fern plant, geranium plant, pine tree, oak tree

# part of the plant becomes specialized structures called sporangia in which meiosis occurs

* in ferms, looks like fuzzy brown hairs on underside of leaf

# meiosis produces spores in plants
# spores are haploid, single-celled and often have a thickened cell wall
# “sporophytes produce spores in sporangia”

Front 113

Gametophyte

Back 113

# 1 in the fern life cycle diagram
# haploid phase, usually very inconspicuous or hidden

* fern gametophytes are about the size of the head of a pin

# spores are the first stage in the gametophyte phase
# produce gametes, eggs and sperm, in specialized structures by mitosis
# “gametophytes produce gametes”

Front 114

angiosperm life cycle

Back 114

involves flower, fruit and seed

Front 115

Flower

Back 115

# modified stem tip with modified leaves
# very diverse in appearance but all flowers will have the same basic structures
# flower is an organ for sexual reproduction

Front 116

5 basic parts of a flower

Back 116

recepticle
sepals
petals
stamens
pistil

Front 117

pistil

Back 117

# carpel = basic unit

# structure in which seeds are produced
# parts:

* stigma - receives pollen
* style - connection between stigma and ovary
* ovary - closed container of ovules/seeds

o ovule = unfertilized seed
* develops into the fruit

Front 118

stamens

Back 118

produce pollen (in anther)

Front 119

petals

Back 119

- colored, often showy
- typically for attracting pollinators

Front 120

sepals

Back 120

- green
- cover and protect the flower

Front 121

recepticle

Back 121

base on which other parts are attached

Front 122

pollen is ____ and stigma is _____

Back 122

male; female

Front 123

hay fever

Back 123

allergic reaction to the proteins in the pollen

Front 124

pollination

Back 124

transfer of pollen from anther to stigma

Front 125

self compatibility

Back 125

can self pollinate

Front 126

self-incompatibility

Back 126

cannot self pollinate

Front 127

mechanisms for pollination

Back 127

wind and animals

Front 128

ovule

Back 128

develops in ovary

- when fertilized, becomes the seed
-structure: outer coat, inner cell mass, within which a cell becomes the megaspore mother cell

Front 129

sporangium

Back 129

inner mass of cells in ovule, female

Front 130

female gametophyte (ovule in angiosperm life cycle)

Back 130

egg and central cell with two haploid nuclei

Front 131

fertilization

Back 131

first: pollination, then pollen germinates into a pollen tube

pollen tube grows into style and to ovary and to the ovule

tube carries two sperm

Front 132

double fertilization

Back 132

unique to flowering plants

sperm, egg, zygote, mitosis, embryo

other sperm, central cell fuses with the two haploid nuclei, endosperm nucleus, mitosis, endosperm

(endosperm is a nutritive tissue)

Front 133

embryonic development (angiosperm life cycle)

Back 133

zygote divides into an embryo
- embryonic root
- embryonic shoot
- cotyledons

Front 134

Seed part

Back 134

seed coat
embryo
stored food (endosperm)

Front 135

fruit and functions

Back 135

mature and ripened ovary,
development signaled by hormones from seeds

functions:
- seed protection
- seed dispersal

Front 136

types of fruit

Back 136

fleshy- soft outer layer
dry- hard outer layer

Front 137

Asexual reproduction in plants

Back 137

mitosis only- no meiosis
- very common
- commercially important
- cloning