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123 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is behaviour, generally and technically? Give three synonyms for behaviour.
Some synonyms are: activity, action, performance, responding, response, and reaction

Generally, behaviour is anything that a person says or does. Technically, behaviour is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism.
Distinguish between overt and covert behaviours. Give two examples of each that are not in this chapter.
Overt (visible) behaviours are ones that could be observed and recorded by an individual other than the one performing the behaviour. Example: going for a run; singing along to the radio.

Covert (private, internal) behaviours are activities that cannot be readily observed by others. Example: self-talk (i.e., "you can do this" before stepping on the ice before a competition); thinking "that lady looks fat" to yourself; feeling upset after a losing a game.
What is a behavioural deficit? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.
A behavioural deficit is too little behaviour of a particular type. Example: too little use of manners; not paying enough attention to something.
What is a behavioural excess? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.
A behavioural excess is too much behaviour of a particular type. Example: talking/ speaking up too much (to the point where it is interrupting); eating too much.
Define behaviour modification.
Behaviour modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve individual; covert and overt behaviours in order to enhance their daily functioning.
Define behavioural assessment.
Behavioural assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to (1) identify and describe target behaviours; (2) identify possible causes of the behaviour; (3) Guide the selection of an appropriate behavioural treatment; (4) evaluate treatment outcome.
List four myths or misconceptions about behavioural modification.
1. Use of rewards by behaviour modifiers to change behaviour is bribery.
2. Behaviour modification involves the use of drugs, psychosurgery, and electroconvulsive therapy.
3. Behaviour modification changes only symptoms but doesn't get at the underlying problems.
4. Behaviour modification can be applied to deal with simple problems, such as toilet training children or overcoming fear of heights, but it is not applicable for changing complex problems such as low self-esteem or depression.
5. Behaviour modifiers are cold and unfeeling and not develop empathy with their clients.
6. Behaviour modifiers deal only with observable behaviour; they don't deal with thoughts and feelings of clients.
7. Behaviour modification is outdated.
List five areas in which behaviour modification is being applied.
Behaviour modification is being applied in areas such as education, social work, nursing, clinical psychology, psychiatry, community psychology, medicine, rehabilitation, business, industry, and sports.
List four behaviours in persons with intellectual disabilities that have been modified by behaviour modification.
Behavioural techniques have helped in teaching persons with intellectual disabilities behaviours such as toileting, self-help skills (i.e., feeding, dressing and personal hygiene), social skills, communication skills, vocational skills, leisure-time activities, and a variety of community survival behaviours.
What is health psychology?
Health psychology considers how psychological factors can influence or cause illness and how people can be encouraged to practice healthy behaviour to prevent health problems.
Describe five areas of application within health psychology,
1. Direct Treatment of Medical Problems- health psychologists are continuing the trend of developing behavioural techniques to treat symptoms such as migraine headaches, backaches, or stomach problems.
2 . Establishing Treatment Compliance- because it is behaviour, compliance with medical regimens is a natural for behaviour modification thus health psychologists promote treatment compliance.
3. Promotion of Healthy Living- an important area of behaviour modification involves the application of techniques to help people manage their own behaviours to stay healthy, such as by eating moderate-size well-balanced meals and exercising frequently.
4. Management of Caregivers- health psychologists deal with the behaviour of the client's family, friends, and various medical staff concerned with the client's health to improve services provided to patients.
5. Stress Management- an important area of health psychology concerns the study of stressors, their effects on behaviour, and the development of behavioural strategies for coping with stressors.
What is behavioural community psychology?
Behavioural community psychology has been defined as "applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behaviour of individuals is not considered deviant in the tradition sense".
Define organizational behaviour management.
Organizational behaviour management (OBM) has been defined as the application of behavioural principles and methods to they study and control of individual or group behaviour within organizational settings.
List four general areas of sport psychology in which behaviour modification has been applied.
1. Techniques for improving skills of athletes.
2. Strategies for motivating practice and enduring training.
3. Changing the behaviour of coaches.
4. "Sport psyching" to prepare for competition.
What is a baseline? Give an example.
Baseline refers to the observation phase prior to the reinforcement program. Example: The instances of Darren's cooperative behaviour observed before the reinforcement program was implemented.
What is a positive reinforcer?
A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that, when presented immediately following a behaviour, causes the behaviour to increase in frequency (roughly a synonym for "reward").
What is the principle of positive reinforcement?
The principle called positive reinforcement states if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.
What is operant behaviour? Describe an example, and indicate how the example fits the definition of operant behaviour.
Behaviours that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences are called operant behaviour. Example: Mother is busy ironing the kitchen [situation] --> her 3 year old daughter begins playing with baby brother [response] --> mother has just completed her ironing and sits down to play with daughter and baby brother for a brief period of time [immediate consequence] --> in the future, the daughter is more likely to play with baby brother when mother is ironing because of the attention given when she began playing with him [long-term effects].
Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behaviour for a reinforcement program?
By being specific when selecting a behaviour, you (a) help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behaviour and changes in its frequency, which is the yardstick by which on judges reinforcer effectiveness, and (b) increases the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently.
After dinner, a teenager begins washing dishes and the parent stops nagging the teenager to do so. Is that an example of positive reinforcement? Explain why or why not, in terms of the definition of positive reinforcement.
This is not an example of positive reinforcement because that would mean that a positive reinforcer was presented immediately after a specific behaviour to encourage that behaviour. In this case, the behaviour did not occur on its own with a positive reinforcer to follow, it occurred because they were nagged to do so.
What do behaviour modifiers mean by the term deprivation? Describe in an example.
The term deprivation indicates the time during which an individual does not experience a particular reinforcer. Example: Playing with a purse would not have been an effective reinforcer for Dianne had she been allowed to play with one prior to the training session.
What do behaviour modifiers mean by the term satiation? Describe an example.
The term satiation refers to a condition in which an individual has experienced a particular reinforcer to such an extent that it is temporarily no longer reinforcing. Example: Sweets will usually not be reinforcing to a child who has just eaten a large bag of candy.
If you instruct someone about a positive reinforcement program for that person's behaviour, is that bribery? Why or why not?
No it is not, an offer is the use of instructions about a reinforcement program to strengthen desirable behaviour. Critics who accuse behaviour modifiers of using bribery fail to distinguish between the promise of reinforcers for desirable behaviours versus the promise of reinforcers for immoral or illegal deeds.
Distinguish between the direct and indirect effects of a positive reinforcers.
The direct effect of a positive reinforcer is the increased frequency of a response because it was immediately followed by that reinforcer whereas the indirect effect of a positive reinforcer is the strengthening of a response that is followed by that reinforcer even though the reinforcer is delayed.
What is adventitious reinforcement? What is a superstitious behaviour? Give an example of each.
Behaviour accidentally followed by a reinforcer may be strengthened even if it did not actually produce the reinforcer; this adventitious reinforcement. Example: Johnny is in his room coloring on his bedroom walls with crayons. His dad is not in the room so he does not see this when he yells "Johnny, time for some ice cream!"
Superstitious behaviour is behaviour that is strengthened and maintained by adventitious reinforcement. Example: A man playing a slot machine tends to cross his fingers because, in the past, doing so was accidentally followed by winning a jackpot. This would be considered superstitious.
What do we mean by the natural environment? By natural reinforcers? By programmed reinforcers?
A setting in which an individual carries out normal, everyday functions is referred to as the natural environment. Natural reinforcers are reinforcers that follow behaviour in the course of everyday living. Reinforcers that are arranged systematically by psychologists, teachers, and others in behaviour modification programs are referred to as arbitrary, contrived, or programmed reinforcers.
Describe an example of Pitfall Type 1 that involves a person unknowingly applying positive reinforcement to strengthen an undesirable behaviour.
Children who exhibit extreme social withdrawal most likely want to be left alone. They often avoid adults and do not make eye contact however this prompts the adults to give the child more attention and persist in attempting to get the child to look at them when they speak. Unfortunately this behaviour is likely to reinforcer the child's withdrawal behaviour.
Explain what an unconditioned reinforcer is. Give two examples.
Unconditioned reinforcers are stimuli or events important for our survival or biological functioning which are stimuli or that are reinforcing without prior learning or condition. Examples: Food for a hungry person; water for a thirsty person, warmth for someone who is cold, etc.
Explain what a conditioned reinforcer is. Give and explain two examples.
Conditioned reinforcers are stimuli that were not originally reinforcing but have become reinforcers by being paired or associated with other reinforcers. Examples: clothes paired with compliments become clothes that make us look good; watching a T.V. show while eating something delicious can make that show become our favorite T.V. show.
What are tokens?
Tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers.
Explain in two or three sentences what a token economy is.
A behaviour modification program in which individuals can earn tokens for specific behaviours and can cash in their tokens for backup reinforcers is called a token economy (or token system). For example, you might get a token for each good behaviour displayed in a day, at the end of the day you can exchange your tokens for the associated amount of minutes to play on the computer.
Is money a token?
Yes, because the tokens themselves aren't the reward but what you can exchange them for is. Likewise, it is not the money itself that is rewarding but what that money is used to do/buy that is the reward.
Distinguish between a simple conditioned reinforcer and a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Explain why a generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer.
A conditioned reinforcer that is paired with a single backup reinforcer is called a simple conditioned reinforcer. In contract, stimulus that is paired with more than one kind of backup reinforcer is referred to as generalized conditioned reinforcer. Generalized conditioned reinforcers are more effective because many different backup reinforcers are available thus, at any give time, at least one of them will probably be strong enough to maintain tokens at a high reinforcing strength for any individual in the program.
What are the two parts to the principle of extinction?
The principle of extinction states that (a) if, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously reinforced behaviour and that behaviour is not followed by a reinforcer, (b) then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when next encountering a similar situation.
What is the difference between forgetting and extinction?
In forgetting, a behaviour is weakened as a function of time following its last occurrence. Extinction differs from this in that extinction weakens behaviour as a result of being emitted without being reinforced.
Explain the difference, in terms of procedure and results, between the loss of value of a conditioned reinforcer and the extinction of a positively reinforced behaviour.
A 4-year-old child is lying in bed at night while the parents are sitting in the living room talking to guests [situation]  the child begins to make loud animal noises while lying in bed [response]  the parents and guests ignore the child and continue to talk quietly [immediate consequences]  the child is less likely to make animal noises in future situations of that sort [long-term effects].
If a behaviour that was maintained by positive reinforcement is not reinforced at least once in a while, what will happen to the behaviour?
It is important that the behaviour be positively reinforced consistently in order for the behaviour to continue to increase [or to decrease] as planned.
Why is it necessary to consider the setting as a factor influencing your extinction program?
One reason for changing the setting in which extinction is carried out is to minimize the possibility that other people will reinforce the behaviour you are trying to decrease. Also, it may be socially difficult or even impossible to carry out extinction in certain situations.
What is an extinction burst? Describe an example.
An increase in responding during extinction is commonly referred to as an extinction burst. Example: Suppose a child in a classroom is constantly raising his/her hand and snapping his/her fingers to gain the teacher’s attention. A teacher who keeps track of the frequency of finger snapping for a while and then introduces extinction (ignores the finger snapping) would probably observe an increase in finger snapping during the first few minutes of extinction before the behaviour gradually began to taper off.
What is spontaneous recovery? Describe an example.
The reappearance of an extinguished behaviour following a rest is called spontaneous recovery. Example: Suppose that the teacher initiated an extinction program for finger snapping when the student returned to school after lunch. During the first hour, 10 instances of finger snapping occurred, and the teacher and the other students ignored each. For the rest of the day the child did not engage in finger snapping. The behaviour had been successfully extinguished. The next morning at school, the child snapped his fingers 5 times within the first hour, this is spontaneous recovery.
What are three possible reasons for the failure of an extinction program?
1. The attention you are withholding following the undesirable behaviour is not the reinforcer that was maintaining the behaviour
2. The undesirable behaviour is receiving intermittent reinforcement from another source
3. The desired alternative behaviour has not been strengthened sufficiently
Define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement.
Intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a behaviour is reinforced only occasionally rather than every time it occurs. Example: Jan’s problem solving behaviour was not reinforced after each math problem but after a fixed number of problem-solving responses had occurred. On this reinforcement schedule, Jan worked at a very steady rate.
Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement.
A schedule of reinforcement is a rule specifying which occurrences of a given behaviour, if any, will be reinforced. Example: Each time you turn the tap, your behaviour is reinforced by water.
Define and give an example of continuous reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement is an arrangement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. Example: Had Jan received reinforcement for each problem solved, we would say that she was on a continuous reinforcement schedule.
Describe four advantages of intermittent over continuous reinforcement for maintaining behaviour.
1. The reinforcer remains effective longer because satiation takes pace more slowly.
2. Behaviour that has been reinforced intermittently tends to take longer to extinguish.
3. Individuals work more consistently on certain intermittent schedules.
4. Behaviour that has been reinforced intermittently is more likely to persist after being transferred to reinforcers in the natural environment.
What is a free-operant procedure? Give an example.
A free-operant procedure is one in which the individual is “free” to respond repeatedly in the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. Example: If Jan had been given a worksheet containing 12 math problems to solve, she could have worked at various rates.
What is a discrete-trials procedure? Give an example.
In a discrete-trials procedure, a distinct stimulus is presented prior to an opportunity for a response to occur and be followed by reinforcement, and the next response cannot occur until another stimulus is presented, and so on. Example: If Jan’s teacher presented a math problem and waited a brief time for Jan to solve it, following which the teacher presented another problem to Jan, and so on, this would be a discrete-trials procedure.
Explain what an FR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of FR schedules in everyday life. Do your examples involve a free-operant procedure or a discrete-trials procedure?
In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, a reinforcer occurs each time a fixed number of responses of a particular type are emitted.
Example 1: When a schedule increases in steps like walking one mile before reinforcement, then walking two miles before reinforcement, etc. it uses a discrete-trial procedure.
Example 2: Paying an industrial worker for a specified number of completed parts uses discrete-trials procedure.
Explain what a VR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of VR schedules in everyday life. Do your examples involve a free-operant procedure or a discrete-trials procedure?
With a variable-ratio (VR) schedule, a reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response, and the number of responses required for each reinforcer changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next. The number of responses required for each reinforcement in a VR schedule varies around some mean value, and this value is specified in the designation of that particular VR schedule.
Example 1: Over a period of several months a door-to-door salesperson averages one sale for every 10 houses called on. This does not mean that the salesperson makes a sale at exactly every 10th house. A sale could be made at two houses in a row, or not for 5; this is a free-operant procedure.
Example 2: slot machines are programmed on a VR schedule; the gambler has no way of predicting how many times he/she must put in money to hit a payoff. This is a free-operant procedure.
What is an FI schedule?
In a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, a reinforcer is presented following the first instance of a specific response after a fixed period of time. The only requirement for a reinforcer to occur is that the individual engage in the behaviour after reinforcement has become available because of the passage of time.
What is a VI schedule?
In a variable-interval (VI) schedule, a reinforcer is presented following the first instance of a specific response after an interval of time, and the length of the interval changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next.
Explain what an FI/LH schedule is, and describe the details of an example from everyday life.
In order to deal with unpleasant car trips with their kids, mom and dad purchased a timer that could be set at values up to 25 minutes and produced a “ding” when the set time ran out. At the beginning of the car trip, they announced that the kids would be rewarded with 5 minutes of extra T.V. time before bed if they behaved and did not fight with one another during the entire interval. They set the timer for various intervals throughout the car ride.
Describe two examples of how VI/LH might be applied in training programs.
Example 1: A fitness instructor might instruct a person that is exercising to run laps until they hear his whistle. If they run for the entire interval they receive a 2 minute walking break. Sometimes the fitness instructor blows the whistle after five minutes, ten minutes, or fifteen minutes.
Example 2: A basketball coach might tell his players to shoot free throws until he blows his whistle. If they don’t goof off during the interval and practice shooting the entire time he deducts 1 lap from the total they will have to run at the end of practice. He blows his whistle at random intervals like 6 minutes, 12 minutes, or 15 minutes.
Explain what an FD schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of FD schedules that occur in everyday life.
In a fixed-duration (FD) schedule, a reinforcer is presented only if a behaviour occurs continuously for a fixed period of time.
Example 1: A worker who gets paid by the hour.
Example 2: Making ice because water must be exposed to below 0 temperatures for a certain period of time before it turns to ice.
What are concurrent schedules of reinforcement? Describe an example.
When each of two or more behaviours is reinforced on different schedules at the same time, the schedules of reinforcement that are in effect are called concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Example: A student is doing homework while watching a movie.
Define limited-responding DRL, and give an example.
Limited-responding DRL specifies a maximum allowable number of responses during a certain time interval in order for a reinforcer to occur. Example: With Tommy, an interval (50 minutes) was specified and reinforcement occurred at the end of the interval if it contained fewer than a specified number of responses (three talk outs).
Define spaced-responding DRL, and give an example.
Spaced-responding DRL requires that a specified behaviour not occur during a specified interval, and after the interval has passed, an instance of that behaviour must then occur in order for a reinforcer to occur. Example: A student who always calls out the correct answer deprives classmates of the chance to respond to the teacher’s questions. Naturally, we would not wish to eliminate this child’s correct answering. We would hope, however, to reduce the calling out behaviour. We might do this by placing the behaviour on the following DRL schedule: any target response that occurs after 15 minutes of the previous target response is immediately reinforced; any target response that occurs within 15 minutes of the previous target response is not reinforced.
Describe in some detail two examples of how DRL would be useful in treating a behaviour problem.
Example 1: A student who always calls out the correct answer deprives classmates of the chance to respond to the teacher’s questions. Naturally, we would not wish to eliminate this child’s correct answering. We would hope, however, to reduce the calling out behaviour. We might do this by placing the behaviour on the following DRL schedule: any target response that occurs after 15 minutes of the previous target response is immediately reinforced; any target response that occurs within 15 minutes of the previous target response is not reinforced.
Example 2: In order to improve the speech of a student who speaks too rapidly the student would be asked questions such as “How are you?” or “Where do you live?” for which standard responses are reinforced- but only if they encompass a certain minimum time period whose length is determined by what the teacher regards as a normally acceptable rate of speech. Thus, the sequence of respond-wait-respond is reinforced.
Describe in some detail two examples of how a DRO might be useful in treating behaviour problems.
Example 1: Gerry missed a lot of school because he was hospitalized multiple times for issues with his skin due to excessive scratching. The nurses at the hospital created a DRO schedule in which Gerry was not able to scratch for a 2-minute interval. If he scratched within the interval, it started again. If he didn’t scratch, he received tokens which he could trade for snacks, T.V. time, etc. Eventually the interval was increased to 4 minutes, then 8 minutes, etc.
Example 2: A student picks his nose a lot in class instead of doing his work. The teacher implemented a schedule in which the student must go 2 minutes without picking his nose and if he does then the interval starts all over again. If he completes it then he gets an extra minute of free-time. The interval increases from 2 minutes to 5 minutes to 8 minutes and so on until he no longer picks his nose.
What is the difference between DRI and DRA?
Differential reinforcement of incompatible (DRI) behaviour decreases a target response by withholding reinforcers for it and by reinforcing an incompatible response whereas differential reinforcement of alternative (DRA) behaviour involves the extinction of a problem behaviour combined with reinforcing a behaviour that is topographically dissimilar to but not necessarily incompatible with the problem behaviour.
Explain how the effects of DRL, DRO, DRI and DRA differ from the effects of the intermittent-reinforcement schedules discussed in Chapter 6?
DRLs are effective when a behaviour is tolerable but less would be better, or if it is desirable as long as it does not occur too rapidly or frequently. DROs are effective when the behaviour should be eliminated and there is no danger that the procedure might result in the reinforcement of an undesirable alternative behaviour. A DRI or DRA is effective if the behaviour should be eliminated and there is a danger that DRO would strengthen an undesirable alternative behaviour. An intermittent-reinforcement schedule differs in that it reinforces a behaviour occasionally [rather than every time it occurs].
What is a stimulus? Give two examples that are not from the text.
A stimulus [singular] are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behaviour. Examples: the smell of cookies baking; a nightlight in the dark.
Define Stimulus Control.
Stimulus control refers to the degree of correlation between the occurrence of a particular stimulus and the occurrence of a subsequent response.
What is the difference between a stimulus and a discriminative stimulus?
A stimulus is any cue that can affect behaviour whereas a discriminant stimulus is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced; a cue that a particular response will pay off.
Describe an example [not from this chapter] of a stimulus that is an SD for one behaviour and an S-delta for a different behaviour.
A handicapped bathroom stall is an SD for people in wheelchairs or needing assistance to use and an S-delta for people who do not require assistance to choose a different stall.
Describe the stimulus discrimination training procedure, and give an example.
Stimulus discrimination training refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of an SD and extinguishing that response in the presence of an S-delta. Example: Children swearing  reinforced by friends (SD) extinguished because not reinforced by grandparents (S-delta)
State the two effects of stimulus discrimination training.
1. Good stimulus control – a strong correlation between the occurrence of a particular stimulus and a particular response
2. A stimulus discrimination – a response occurs to an SD, not to an S-delta.
Define stimulus generalization, and give an example.
Stimulus generalization refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of a stimulus or situation and the effect of the response becoming more probable in the presence of another stimulus or situation. Example: A teacher uses various methods to capture the attention of her students and get them to stop talking and pay attention. Thus the teacher can clap her hands, whistle loudly, or call out (all different stimuli) and the response is the same (her students quit talking and focus their attention on her).
When you are considering the selection of a stimulus to be set up as an SD, what four questions might you ask yourself about that stimulus? (see p. 105)
1.Is the stimulus different from other stimuli along more than one dimension? That is, is it different in location size, color, and sensory modality (hearing, touch, vision, etc.)?
2.Is the stimulus one that can be presented only or at least mainly on occasions when the desired response should occur to avoid confusion with the occurrence of the stimulus on other occasions?
3.Is the stimulus of the type that the probability of the person attending to it when it is presented is high?
4.Are there any undesirable responses that might be controlled by the chosen stimulus? (if some undesirable response follows the stimulus, it will interfere with the development of new stimulus control of the desired response.)
Describe a stimulus you would like to establish as an SD for a behaviour of yourself or a friend, and describe the behaviour. Then, for that stimulus answer the four questions you asked yourself in q. 18.
I would like to establish drinking tea as an SD for going to bed; when I make a cup of tea at the same time each evening, it will elicit the response that I get ready for bed and go to sleep.
1. Yes, instead of watching T.V. in the living room I would be drinking tea in the kitchen (less distraction).
2. Yes, I can avoid drinking tea at any other time during the day.
3. Yes, it is very quick and easy to make tea; easy habit to maintain.
4. Not if it is caffeine-free tea.
From a behavioural perspective, what is a rule?
A rule from a behavioural perspective describes a situation in which a behaviour will lead to a consequence. Thus, a rule describes a three-term contingency of reinforcement.
With examples, distinguish between rule-governed and contingency-shaped behaviour.
Behaviour that develops because of its immediate consequences is referred to as contingency-shaped behaviour. Johnny’s swearing, for example, developed because it was immediately reinforced by the other kids. Rule-governed behaviour is behaviour that is controlled by the statement of a rule. For example, if a father were to tell his 16-year-old son, “you can use the family car each Saturday night, but only if you mow the lawn each Friday,” then the son is likely to comply with the rule on the first opportunity.
Define fading and give an example of it.
Fading is the gradual change over successive trials of an antecedent stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus. Example: Peter would at first say his name only when it was said to him. Through a fading process, the stimulus control over the response “Peter” was gradually transferred from the antecedent stimulus “Peter” to the antecedent stimulus “What’s your name?”
Define errorless discrimination training.
Errorless discrimination training (errorless learning) is the use of a fading procedure to establish a stimulus discrimination so that no errors occur.
What is meant by a dimension of a stimulus? Describe an example.
In general, a dimension of a stimulus is any characteristic that can be measured on some continuum. Example: Fading occurs along dimensions of stimuli, such as the LOUDNESS of the question that Veronica presented to Peter, the PRESSURE of a teacher’s hand that guides a child’s printing, and the CLARITY of dots that a child might be expected to trace.
What do we mean by final desired stimulus? Give an example.
The final desired stimulus of a fading program should be chosen carefully. It is important to select it so that the occurrence of the response to that particular stimulus is likely to be maintained in the natural environment. Example: Veronica could have stopped training at the second last step where she loudly asked Peter “What is your name?” followed by mouthing the word ‘Peter’. However, in the natural environment, someone asking Peter his name would not likely follow it by mouthing the word ‘Peter’. Thus she conducted the last step of the program.
What do we mean by starting stimulus? Give an example.
At the beginning of a fading program, it is important to select a starting stimulus that reliably evokes the desired behaviour. Example: In the task of teaching Peter his name, Veronica knew that Peter would mimic the last word of a question when that question was spoken loudly. Therefore, the starting stimulus with Peter was the question, “What’s your name?” said very softly and followed quickly by the shouted word, “Peter!”
Define the four major categories of teacher-behaviour prompts. Give an example of each.
1.Physical prompts consist of guiding the learning through touch. Example: Holding a child’s hand while teaching them to walk.
2.Gestural prompts are certain motions that a teacher makes. Example: A teacher might extend a hand in a palm-downward motion as a prompt for children to talk softly.
3.Modeling prompts occur when the correct behaviour is demonstrated. Example: A swimming coach might model the correct arm movements for the freestyle stroke for young swimmers.
4.Verbal prompts are verbal hints or cues. Example: A driving instructor might use verbal prompts by telling a student driver to “check over your left shoulder before pulling out” or “remember to signal when changing lanes”.
Define within-stimulus prompt, and describe an example that is not from this chapter. Does your example involve a teacher-behaviour prompt or an environmental prompt?
A within-stimulus prompt is an alteration of the SD or the S-delta to make their characteristics more noticeable and therefore easier to discriminate. Example: When teaching a child the difference between the words “dessert” and “desert” you might exaggerate different syllables such as “de-SSERT” and “DE-sert” and gradually fade the sounds to their normal pitch and loudness. This example involves using words as hints or cues which is a teacher-behaviour prompt.
Define extra-stimulus prompt, and describe an example that is not from this chapter. Does your example involve a teacher-behaviour prompt or an environmental prompt?
An extra-stimulus prompt is something that is added to the environment to make a correct response more likely. Example: In an attempt to healthier a woman buys vegetables and fruits and puts them on the top shelf of her fridge, and moves the processed foods to the bottom crisper. When she goes to eat she is more likely to choose a fruit or vegetable. This is an example of an environmental prompt because she rearranges her physical environment.
Identify the 3 basic stages in any shaping procedure as presented at the beginning of this chapter, and describe them with an example.
1.Specify the final desired behaviour. Example: Frank’s goal was to jog a quarter of a mile each day. However, for a chronic non-exerciser, this was more than could be expected.
2.Identify a response that could be used as a starting point in working toward the final desired behaviour. Example: Frank decided that he would put on his sneakers and walk around the outside of the house once (approximately 30 yards). Although this was a long way from a quarter of a mile, it was a start.
3.Reinforce the starting response; then reinforce closer and closer approximations until eventually the desired response occurs. Example: Frank decided to use the opportunity to drink a beer as a reinforcer. He explained his program to his wife and asked her to remind him that he had to complete his exercise before he could have a beer. After the first approximation had occurred on several successive afternoons, Frank increased the requirement to walking around the house twice, and so on.
Define shaping.
Shaping can be defined as the development of a new behaviour by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that behaviour and the extinction of earlier approximations of that behaviour until the new behaviour occurs.
What is another name for shaping?
Shaping is sometimes referred to as the “method of successive approximations”.
Describe a behaviour of yours that was shaped by consequences in the natural environment, and state several of the initial approximations.
I typically use about 7 dishes when I make supper, which I make at 6:30pm every night. I begin getting ready for bed at 9:00pm. I do not watch T.V. after 9:00pm however I do not let myself watch T.V. until all of my dishes are cleaned, dried, and put away. At first I was so slow that I didn’t get to watch T.V. until 7:45pm. As I got quicker I was able to tune in at 7:35pm, then 7:20pm and eventually I was able to have supper cleaned up by 7:00pm, just in time to catch all of my favorite show.
What do behaviour modifiers mean by the term target behaviour in a shaping program? Give an example.
The first stage in shaping is to identify clearly the final desired behaviour, which in a shaping program, is referred to as the target behaviour. Example: In Frank’s case, the final desired behaviour or target behaviour was jogging a quarter of a mile each day. With a definition this specific, it was unlikely Frank or his wife would develop different expectations regarding this goal.
What do behaviour modifiers mean by the term starting behaviour in a shaping program? Give an example.
A starting behaviour in a shaping program should be a behaviour that occurs often enough to be reinforced within the session time, and it should approximate the final desired behaviour. Example: Frank’s behaviour of walking around the house once is something that he did periodically. This was the closest approximation that he regularly made with respect to the goal of jogging a quarter of a mile.
Give an example of Pitfall Type 1 in which shaping might be accidentally applied to develop an undesirable behaviour. Describe some of the shaping steps in your example.
Intensity/force (dimension)  amount of energy expended on the behaviour (definition)  While two friends are gossiping, one friend makes a rude remark and the other friend responds by lightly smacking them. Because the smack was reinforced with laughter, the friend reacts this way again only without noticing, they smack slightly harder than the time before. The laughter continues to reinforce the behaviour and the smack that is delivered gets more forceful with each approximation.
Briefly describe the total-task presentation chaining method.
With the total-task presentation method, an individual attempts all of the steps from the beginning to the end of the chain on each trial and continues with total task trials until that person learns the chain. Prompting is provided at each step as needed, and a reinforcer follows the correct completion of the last step.
Briefly describe the backward chaining method.
With the backward chaining method, the last step is taught first, then the next-to-last step is taught and linked to the last step, then the third-from last step is taught and linked to the last two steps, and so on, progressing backward toward the beginning of the chain. Backward chaining gradually constructs the chain in a reverse order from that in which the chain is performed.
Briefly describe the forward chaining method.
The forward chaining method teaches the initial step of the sequence first, then teaches and links together the first and second steps, then the first three steps, and so on until the entire chain is acquired.
Distinguish among the types of target behaviour typically established by shaping, fading, and chaining.
Shaping - New behaviour along some physical dimension such as topography, amount, or intensity
Fading - New stimulus control of a particular behaviour.
Chaining - New consistent sequence of stimuli and responses.
What is meant by the term “task analysis”? Describe a plausible task analysis appropriate for teaching a 3-year-old child the chain of tying a knot in a shoelace.
The process of breaking down a task into smaller steps or component responses to facilitate training is called a task analysis. Example: The steps involved in learning to tie a knot in your shoelaces are tying the bow, pulling tight, and then tying a knot. In order to teach a 3-year-old you might have them do the following steps: criss-cross the laces and fold one underneath the other then pull tight. Next make two “bunny ears”, wrap one around the other then through the loop, pull tight. To make the knot, have them criss-cross the two bunny ears and fold one underneath the other, then pull tight.
Briefly describe three strategies to help individuals use prompts independently to guide the mastery of a chain of behaviours.
1.For learners to be able to read, a written task analysis might effectively prompt them to appropriately complete behaviour chains.
2.If the learners are unable to read, a series of picture prompts might guide them.
3.Another strategy that involves independent use of prompts to guide completion of behavioural chains involves reciting self-instructions. Individuals with developmental disabilities have been taught to recite self-instructions to prompt correct completion of vocational tasks, completion of math problems correctly and sorting letters into boxes correctly.
What is a punisher? Describe an example in which you identify both the response and the punisher.
A punisher is a stimulus whose presentation immediately after a behaviour causes that behaviour to decrease in frequency. Example: Every time Susan swears, her parents make her put 25 cents in the swear jar (punisher). The amount Susie swears decreases (response).
State the principle of punishment.
Associated with the concept of a punisher is the principle of punishment: If, in a given situation, someone does something that is immediately followed by a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when she or he next encounters a similar situation.
Define unconditioned punisher, and give an example of it.
Unconditioned punishers are stimuli that are punishing without prior learning. Example: spankings, pinches, electric shock, cold baths, prolonged tickling, hair tugging, etc.
Describe or define four different types of punishers, and give an example of each.
1.Pain-inducing punisher (physical punisher) – is a stimulus immediately following a behaviour that activates pain receptors or other sense receptors that typically evoke feelings of discomfort. Example: Receiving an electric shock after touching an electric fence.
2.Reprimand – is a strong negative verbal stimulus immediately contingent on behaviour. Example: A parent saying “No! That was bad!” immediately after a child throws their toy down the stairs.
3.Timeout – is a period of time immediately following a particular behaviour during which an individual loses the opportunity to earn reinforcers. Example: During recess a child throws snowballs at another child. Immediately the teacher on duty brings them to the principal’s office where they have to spend the remainder of recess time.
4.Response Cost – involves the removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer immediately following a behaviour. Example: For every time that her children fight with each other, talk back, or misbehave in other ways a mother takes away one minute of play-time before their bed time.
State the procedures for extinction, response cost, and exclusionary timeout.
Extinction – withholding of a reinforcer following a previously reinforced response that weakens the response.
Response cost – the removal of a specified amount of reinforcer immediately following a particular behaviour.
Exclusionary timeout – removal of an individual briefly from a reinforcing situation contingent on a response.
Distinguish between the direct-acting and indirect-acting effect of punishment. Give an example of each.
The direct-acting effect of punishment is the decreased frequency of a response because of its immediate punishing consequences. Example: A person speeding is immediately pulled over by police and issued a ticket.
The indirect-acting effect of punishment is the weakening of a response that is followed by a punisher even though the punisher is delayed. Example: Speeding through an intersection, a person is caught by photo radar and receives a ticket in the mail two weeks later.
Compare SD to SDp. Give an example of each.
An SD is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced. Example: When other kids are around (SD) swearing is reinforced. Similarly, an SDp is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be punished. Example: When your grandparents are around (SDp) swearing is punished.
Compare S-delta to SDp. Give an example of each.
An SDp is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be punished. Example: A child who whines because they can’t have a toy is spanked.
An S-delta is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will not be reinforced. Example: A child who whines because they can’t have a toy is ignored.
In 2-3 sentences, describe either the case of the lemon juice therapy with Sandra or the ice cube therapy with Gerri.
Sandra was an extremely underweight and malnourished baby as a result of her spitting up mostly all of the milk after a feeding. In an attempt to get her to stop so that she could get healthy, doctors and nurses gave her lemon juice immediately after they detected her spitting up the milk as a punishment. This dramatically reduced the frequency of her ruminating and she was discharged from the hospital.
Cite six potential harmful side effects of the application of punishment.
1.Aggressive behaviour
2.Emotional behaviour
3.Escape and avoidance behaviour
4.No new behaviour (only suppresses old behaviour)
5.Modeling of punishment
6Overuse of punishment
Define escape conditioning, and describe how it was used with Jason.
Escape conditioning states that the removal of certain stimuli immediately after the occurrence of a behaviour will increase the likelihood of that behaviour. In the escape procedure used with Jason, the removal of the loud tone following the response of showing good posture increased the probability that he would show good posture each time the tone was presented.
Define avoidance conditioning, and describe how it was used with Jason.
Avoidance conditioning is a contingency in which a behaviour prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring thereby resulting in an increase in the frequency of that behaviour. During the avoidance procedure used with Jason, good posture prevented the tone from occurring.
Give another name for warning stimulus.
A warning stimulus is also called “conditioned aversive stimulus”.
What is the name of the type of avoidance conditioning that involves a warning stimulus?
The type of avoidance conditioning which includes a warning signal that enables the individual to discriminate a forthcoming aversive stimulus is called discriminated avoidance conditioning.
What are two procedural differences between escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning?
1.One difference between escape and avoidance conditioning is that an escape response removes an aversive stimulus that has already occurred while an avoidance response prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring at all.
2.A second difference between escape and avoidance conditioning is that the latter often involves a warning stimulus, which is a stimulus that signals a forthcoming aversive stimulus.
Briefly describe an example of how people unknowingly strengthen others’ undesirable behaviour by allowing such behaviour to lead to escape or avoidance of aversive stimuli.
Example: A teacher presents prompts every 30 seconds to a child with developmental disabilities [Aversive Situation]  the child begins to tantrum [Escape Response by Individual]  The teacher gives the child a break from the training program [Removal of Aversive Situation]  The child is likely to tantrum when presented with frequent prompts from the teacher [Long-Term Effect]
Describe an example of the inadvertent establishment of conditioned aversive stimuli, which then causes individuals to avoid or escape those stimuli.
Example: If a coach yells at, criticizes, and ridicules athletes, the athletes may show improved skills primarily to avoid or escape the coach’s wrath. But in the process, the coach has become a conditioned aversive stimulus for the athletes, so that they are now likely to avoid the coach off the athletic field. If the coaching tactics become too aversive, everything associated with the sport will become aversive, and some team members might even quit it entirely.
What are operant behaviours? Give three examples.
Behaviours that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn controlled by those consequences, are called operant behaviours. Examples: Putting gas in your car, asking for directions, writing an exam, turning on a TV set, and making breakfast.
What are respondent behaviours? Give three examples.
Respondent behaviours are behaviours elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences. Examples: Salivating when smelling dinner cooking, feeling frightened when watching a scary movie, blushing when told that your fly or blouse is undone, and becoming sexually aroused when watching X-rated movies.
Define and give an example of the following: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
Unconditioned Stimulus – a stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning or conditioning. Example: food, genital stimulation, irritation in nose, etc.
Unconditioned Response – a response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. Example: salivating (when food is present), orgasm (in response to genital stimulation), etc.
Conditioned Stimulus – a stimulus that elicits a response because that stimulus has been paired with another stimulus that elicits that response. Example: the sound of classical music [CS] paired with the smell of food (to get the mouth to water).
Conditioned Response – a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Example: Salivation (CR) in response to the sound of classical music (that has been previously also paired with the smell of food).
In a sentence for each, briefly describe five variables that influence the development of a conditioned reflex.
1.The more the number of pairings of a CS with a US, the more likely is the ability of the CS to elicit the CR.
2.Stronger conditioning occurs if the CS precedes the US by about half a second rather than by a longer time or rather than following the US.
3.A CS acquires a more likely ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with the US than if it is only occasionally paired with the US.
4.When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS.
5.Respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or US or both are intense rather than weak.
Diagram an example of higher-order conditioning.
Conditioning of the 1st order
NS (classical music)
Pairings US (food) --> UR (salivation)
CS1 (classical music) --> CR (salivation)

Conditioning of the 2nd order
NS (yellow light)
Pairings CS1 (classical music) --> CR (salivation)
CS2 (yellow light) --> CR (salivation)
What is biological preparedness? Give an example.
Seligman (1971) coined the term “biological preparedness” to refer to the predisposition of members of a species to be more rapidly conditioned to some neutral stimuli as CSs than to others. Example: Humans will more quickly learn fears to stimuli that may have posed a threat to survival, such as snakes and insects, than to stimuli that were likely non-threatening in our ancestors’ history, like flowers.
Describe the procedures and results of both operant and respondent reinforcement.
The Pavlovian (respondent) conditioning procedure consists of pairing a neutral stimulus (NS) with a US before the response. The result of Pavlovian (respondent) reinforcement is that the NS (now called a CS) acquires the capability to elicit the response (now called a CR). The operant conditioning procedure consists of the presentation of a positive reinforcer or the removal of an aversive stimulus immediately following a response. The result is that the operant behaviour increases in frequency.
Describe the procedures and results of both operant and respondent extinction.
The Pavlovian (respondent) extinction procedure involves the presentation of a CS without further pairings with the US. The result is that the CS loses the capability of eliciting the CR. The operant extinction procedure involves withholding a reinforcer following a previously reinforced response. The result is that the response decreases in frequency.
Describe a respondent conditioning procedure for treating constipation. Identify the US, UR, CS, and CR.
Quarti and Renaud had their clients administer to themselves a distinctive electrical stimulus- a mild, non-painful electric current- immediately prior to defecating. Defecation (UR) was initially elicited by a laxative (US), and then the amount of the drug was gradually decreased until defecation (CR) was elicited by the electrical stimulus (CS) alone. Then, by applying the electrical stimulus at the same time each day, several of the clients were eventually able to get rid of the electrical stimulus because the natural environment stimuli characteristically present at that time each day acquired control over the behaviour of defecating. Thus, these clients achieved regularity without the continued use of artificial stimulation.
In the experiment with Albert, what was the US? The UR? The CS? The CR?
Striking a steel box with a hammer (US); Startled reaction, crying, and fear in response to striking the steel box with a hammer (UR); the white rat (CS) coupled with hitting the steel box with a hammer; startled reaction, crying, and fear in response to only the white rat (CR).
Describe the procedures that are major causes for each of the emotions of joy, anger, anxiety, and relief.
1.Presentation of reinforcers produces the emotion called joy.
2.Withholding or withdrawing reinforcers produces the emotion called anger.
3.The presentation of aversive stimuli produces the emotion called anxiety.
4.Withdrawal of aversive stimuli produces an emotion that is called relief.
In a sentence for each, summarize three important characteristics that make up our emotions, and name the type of conditioning involved in each characteristic.
1.The autonomic reaction that you feel during the experience of an emotion (typically accompanied by visible signs such as frowns or smiles), which is influenced by respondent conditioning.
2.The way that you learn to express an emotion overtly (such as shouting, jumping up and down), which is influenced by operant conditioning.
3.The way that you become aware of and describe your emotions, which is influenced by operant conditioning.
What basic assumption do the authors of this text make about public and private behaviour?
Although private behaviour is more difficult to “get at,” behaviour modifiers assume that in other respects it is the same as public behaviour; that is, that the principles and procedures of operant and respondent conditioning apply to private behaviour.