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275 Cards in this Set
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Archaeology
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The study of human past (main def.)
Part of the science of anthro (study of humanity) Specifically, the study of material remains to describe and explain human behavior. |
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Prehistoric archaeology
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Study of prehistoric times, from the earliest human beings to the frontier of documented history
ex. Mary Leakey |
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Classical archaeology
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Study of the great classical civilizations of Greece and Rome.
Traditionally, studied mostly art and buildings, but now study economic, settlement, and social issues of interest to prehistoric archaeologists |
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Egyptologists and Assyriologists
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Study Egypt and Mesopotamia
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Historical archaeology
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Excavate sites from periods in which written language exists.
Medieval castles in England, colonial America, etc. |
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Underwater archaeology
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Sites at the bottom of the sea and lake beds. Ship wrecks, etc.
Texas A&M is center for underwater archaeology. |
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Biblical archaeology
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Study Syria and Palestine
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Industrial Archaeology
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Study buildings and structures from the Industrial Revolution or later (railroads, cotton plantations, windmills, housing in England, etc.)
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Contract Archaeology
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CRM: Cultural Resource Management
Conduct surveys and excavations for environmental impact statements and protection of historical sites. |
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CRM
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Cultural Resource Management
Conduct surveys and excavations for environmental impact statements and protection of historical sites. Also "contact archaeology" |
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Ethnoarchaeology
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Live in contemporary communities, understanding how societies use material culture, like how they make tools and weapons, how they build settlements, etc.
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Pseudoarchaeology
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"archaeology" that is crap. Atlantis, Noah's Ark hunters, etc.
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Goals of archaeology
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1) Conserve and manage sites for the future
2) Studying sites and their contents in a context of time and space to reconstruct and describe long sequences of human culture. This descriptive activity reconstructs cultural history. 3) Reconstruct past lifeways 4) Why do things change? Why do things stay the same? 5) Relate the ancient world to the contemporary one. |
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Ethics of archaeology
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1) Practice and promote stewardship of archaeological record for benefit of all people.
2) Consult effectively with all groups affected and be sensitive to values of other cultures. 3) No treasure hunting, and no enhancing commercial value of objects 4) Educate the public in importance and understanding of findings! 5) Publish yo shit! 6) Preserve things for the future, allow everyone to access findings 7) Don't go digging or researching untrained, without experience! |
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Bishop Usher
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Figured out date everything was created
October 23, 4004 BC. Used bible to date world |
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Hesoid
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The Theogony
lived in 8th century BC lived during an age of iron (ages of gold and silver previous) define world in terms of gold age, silver age, etc. iron age is technical archaeological term ancient person thinking about ancient things! |
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Aztects (history of arch)
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Thought [toltecs]?
Excavated ruins, found stuff, put stuff in their own ruins (museums) Teotihuacan - site that ancient peoples fascinated by |
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Nabonidus
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Babylonian king (persent day Iraq)
first archaeologist created museum, excavated! 6th century BC |
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First modern archaeology
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Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Mt. Vesuvius
1710, tunnels dug in Heruculaneum, nobles wanted to decorate their houses. Hit a roman statue room from a roman theatre. BUT, didn't document where found anything! |
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PPompeii (early archaeology)
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year 79, Vesuvius exploded
killed by poisonous gasses ash hardened into concrete in 1748, Giuseppe Fiorelli does scientific excavation. People who didn't get away were buried. Pockets in concrete, put plaster of paris to make casts of bodies, food, furniture, etc! (now we use see-through resin) |
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Curiosity cabinets
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Rich people collecting things from antiquity
Charles Townley, collecting for collecting's sake |
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Thomas Jefferson
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Was part-time archaeologist
Had a mound on his property. Excavated his mount. Different levels...early remains on bottom, latest on top (stratigraphy) Found Native American remains! |
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James Hutton
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Very gamous geologist
Theory of the Earth, 1785, geologic time has been indefinitely long, with no vestige of a beginning and no end. Earth is a self-renewing machine. old mountains eroded away, new ones lifted up, sea goes in and out. Put together idea of stratigraphy (early shit on bottom, later on top) |
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Charles Lyell
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Father of modern geology.
Expanded on Hutton's approach and proposed uniformitarianism as a counter to catastrphist theories like Cuvier's. |
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Uniformitarianism
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The geological processes that operate today have been the same processes that have been operating since the earth came about
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Catastrophist theories
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Things like Noah's Arc, that world is built up and catastrophies wipe out everything
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Jacques Boucher de Perthes
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1788 - 1868
Made case for early species of human. Humans evolving?!!? omglykewhoa. |
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Charles Darwin
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EVOLUTION. Had books by Lyell and Hutton with him on the Beagle!
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C.J. Thomsen
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1788 - 1865
Three Age System: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age Danish archaeologist Organized collection chronologically He wasn't sure when they actually happened (this is relative dating) Used arsenic instead of tin to make bronze originally System still in use, but updated! (lithic, neolithic, paleolithic) |
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Jean-Francois Champollion
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1790 - 1832
Rosetta Stone! |
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Austen Henry Layard
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1817 - 1894
Period when museums sent people out to get stuff Brings back Nimrud (?) statue, iron age. Date from 900 - 700 bce. Put statues on rafts and ships, some of them sak! |
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Lord Elgin
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Stole Greek statues from Parthenon, etc.
Greeks frigging want them back! |
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Sir Henry Rawlinson
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daredevil!
in Ancient Near East (in Iran and Iraq) Known for deciphering cuniform, used same technique as with rosetta stone Inscription at Besitun Text written in Old Persian, Babylonian, Median. Made a rubbing (squeeze) with a boy dangling on a rope! |
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Squeeze
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Rubbing of something engraved on a rock or something
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Inscription at Besitun
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Made by Darius the Great of Persia
in 519 BC Used by Sir Henry Rawlinson to decipher cuniform |
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Heinrich Schliemann
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Has title "father of archaeology"
Found city of Troy Terrible excavation. Threw out what he really wanted to find. Popularized archaeology! Was a millionaire by being middle man at Gold Rush Homer wrote in 750, about 500 years after war Proved that Trojan war id exist! Temples on old city called "New Troy" |
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Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie
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1853 - 1943, British
Real "father of archaeology" Dug in Egypt and Israel Made archaeology scientific. First to apply concept of stratigraphy to antiquity Realized that pottery was EVERYWHERE. In each city, different type of pottery! Goes in and out of fashion like clothing. Seriation! |
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Pottery Seriation
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Dating with pottery. Put pottery into series
ESSENTIAL before 700 bc (invention of coins) |
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700 BC
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Invention of coins
In area of Iraq Put words and pictures on coins, we can easily date them! |
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Sir Mortimer Wheeler
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Dug in England, India, bit of Mesopotamia
New way of digging! Series of 5m x 5m squares In between each square, 1m untouched so you can see the LAYERS Way to double check if you're doing it right Catherine Kenyan improved method (Kenyan-Wheeler Method) |
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Leonard Woolley and Lawrence of Arabia
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many archaeologists were spies too!
Wooley and Mallowan dug at Ur Max Mallowan married to Agatha Christie Agatha Christie kills Lady Wooley first every time! |
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Max Uhle
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New World archaeologist
1856 - 1944 |
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Alfred Kidder
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SW United States
People talk about him all the time |
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Dorothy Garrod
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Woman breaking into field. British!
Trained a lot of future archaeologists. Excavated Neolithic age in Israel |
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Harriet Boyd Hawes
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Crete, American, Bryn Mawr graduate
1871 - 1945 |
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Gertrude Caton-Thompson
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In Zimbabwe. Like Native Americans, people didn't think that they built things. British!
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Kathleen Kenyon
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Dug at Jericho
Dug with Wheeler Brought Wheeler method to Israel. Tweaked a bit. Kenyon Institute! |
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Anna O. Shepherd
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Ceramics for the Archaeologist (book)
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Mary Leakey
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Famous family
Laetoli footprints! <3 |
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George Bass
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Founded underwater archaeology
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Libby
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Carbon 14 dating!
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Lewis Binford
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In 1960s, archaeologists starting to be discontent. Description of findings!
People started caring about "how" and "why". Look at it as a process. "Processualism" or "New Archaeology" Try to reconstruct history, not merely describe it Archaeology is a science and anthropology! |
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Traditional Archaeology
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Arch used to provide examples of things referred to in historical record and to test the accuracy of record.
Training includes lists of kings and generals, architectural styles, and ceramic typologies. |
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Processual or "New" Archaeology
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-Not only the footprints of the cat on the wet cement (how deep or wide they are)
-It is what made the cat walk on the cement in the first place. Did someone kick her? Did she run after a mouse? -Looks at the "how" and "why" -Lewis R. Binford, in the United States 1) Emphasizes evolutionary generalizations, not historical specifics [Agenda is scientific rather than historical. Emphasizes regularities and correlations. Can define theories that condition the progressive evolution of culture, just as natural selection defines mechanism of evolution.] 2) Seeks universal laws 3) Explanation is explicitly scientific. It's a hard science! 4) Tries to remain objective and ethically neutral. |
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Post-Processual Archaeology
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Ian Hodder
Process doesn't answer everything! Asked "Who?" Recreating humans with emotions, likes, dislikes, etc. 1) Rejects cultural generalizations. Everyone has their own story! 2) Rejects processual search for universal laws. Universals of human behavior don't exist. 3) Rejects explicitly scientific methods. Much of early processual literature rigidly adhered to rote rules of evidence and interpretation. 4) Cannot be objective, must be empathetic. Inner experience of humanity is worth study for its own sake and as clue for interpreting the past. |
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Matrix
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The physical substance that surrounds the find (dirt, water, mud, silt, etc.
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Provenance/provenience
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The 3-D position of the find in the matrix as recorded by archaeologist. You see this discussed a lot with looted objects. Object MUST have background/context!
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The Process of Archaeological Research
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1) Background Research and design
2) Design formulation 3) Fundraising 4) Permissions 5) Implementation 6) Field Research/Conservation/initial artifact preserving 7) Data acquisition 8) Lab analysis 9) Interpretation 10) Final Report |
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Design formulation (process of arch research)
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Figure out how you're going to do everything. Find a site.
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Fundraising (process of arch research)
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How much does it take to excavate for 6 weeks? $60k
Room, board, bussing, flying people, tools, stipends Who gives money? Museums, National governments, universities, some gov't organizations, private organizations, NEH (national endowment for the humanities), and NSF (nat'l sci foundation) |
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Permissions (process of arch research)
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Need to publish whatever you excavate. Archaeologists kept dying without publishing. Um, and get permission from the country you're digging in.
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Implementation (process of arch research)
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Get team, tools, where you're gonna live, etc.
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Field research/conesrvation/initial artifact processing (process of arch research)
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You have to process everything as you go! Record EVERYTHING as you go!
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Interpretation (process of arch research)
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Reconstruct ancient life! Big thing now, put out all raw data AND interpretation
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Excavation
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Yields the most reliable evidence for two main kinds of info:
1) Human activities at a particular period in the past 2) Changes in those activities from period to period Digging!!! |
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Stratification
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Layers, or strata are laid down, one on top of the other, according to processes that still continue (uniformitarianism!)
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Law of superposition
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When one layer overlies another, the lower layer was most likely deposited first
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Tools of the trade
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Brushes (clean dirt)
Dustpan Measuring tape Trowel Pick-axe |
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Digging in earthquakes
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Leave everything in place so you cansee the BIG picture
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Agra in Greece
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Use open horizontal excavation instead of the Kenyon-Wheeler method (why? earthquake?)
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MNI
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Minimum number of individuals, used for mass graves
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Why do people build cities on top of one another?
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It's a good location
They get higher and higher Sometimes it's accidental Don't see so much in the New World |
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Bilbil
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Looks like a poppy upside down! Residue analysis shows that they contained opium!
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Tel or Tell
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Mound with cities one on top of the other
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Archaeological data
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Compromise the material remains of human behavior
Different from facts! One step beyond. This is what's relevant to history. KEY to data: MATERIAL remains. Other things are OBSERVATIONS. |
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Artifacts
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Items that exhibit any physical attributes that can be assumed to be the result of human activity.
Can be a judgement call! At some point, someone used something as a tool. You have to PROVE it. Point to a scratch on the rock or something. Fragments of stone and bone can be v. tricky. Human bodies not generally, but if you find cutmark on bone, could practice cannibalism, then use leg bone as a weapon or a living room decoration! |
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Archaeological Record
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General name for continuous distribution of artifacts over the earth's surface, in highly variable densities
Can include portable artifacts, features, structures, ecofacts, and human remains. |
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Portable Artifacts
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Artifact modified or made by humans and can be carried.
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Features
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Artifact and artifact associations that cannot be taken out of the ground, such as postholes, ditch, or laetoli footprints. (call it a feature until you know what it is!)
Sutton Hoo ship? Rivets are portable artifacts, stains in soil are features |
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Structures
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Houses, graneries, temples, and other buildings that canb e identified from standing remains, patterns of postholes, and other features in the ground. Postholes can INDICATE a feature, so it can be both!
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Ecofacts
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Sometimes food remains, bones, seeds, and other finds which throw light on human activities. Should be ecological?
Portable artifacts could be ecofacts, but more likely you use portable artifacts to eat ecofacts. |
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Context
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Surroundings (Matrix) + Time + Explanation
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Primary context
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Original context of the find, undistrubed by any factor, human or natural, since it was deposited by person involved with it
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Secondary context
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Context of a find whose primary context has been disturbed by later activity. V. frequently burial grounds will find incomplete skeletons whose graves were disturbed by deposition of later bodies or activity.
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Relative dating
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Establishes chronological relationships between site and cultures. NO NUMBER. "this is older than that"
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The Principle of Association
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Objects accompanying a human burial are in most cases things in use at the same time. When certain artifact types found together in grave association after grave association, and when more evolved forms of same tools found in association with other burials, then associations provide some basis for dividing the burials into different chronological groups on the basis of association and artifact styles.
Um...huh? The relationship between an artifact and other archaeological finds and a site level, or another artifact, structure, or feature in the site (association) |
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Archaeological Context
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Derived from careful recording of matrix, provenance, and association of finds. Involves assessing how find got to its positino and what happened since original owners abandoned it.
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Qanta cuneform tablets
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Date: 1400 bce. Example of absolute chronology. Has name of king, you know when king ruled!
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Absolute chronology
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When you can put a DATE or a DATE range to something.
Types: Tree-ring/dendrochronology, carbon-14, Ka-Ar, Electronic spin resonance, uranuim, fission-track, thermoluminescence, obsidian hydration (fancy stuff mostly for prehistory stuff) |
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Dendrochronology
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Cornell, Gone back to 2000 bce
count rings to count how many years. But you can only date when tree was cut down! |
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C-14
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When you die, you no longer inject C-14. It starts breaking down. Has a half-life. You can count back if you measure how much C-14. Gets less and less accurate the longer it's been dead, and you don't do it for really recent things.
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Why survey?
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You might want to find the site.
You might want to find sites around the sites. Cheaper! Previously, only led to excavations, but now people use to draw conclusions (started in 60s and 70s) |
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Ground reconnaisance
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You walk on the ground. Walk in a straight line and count scherds with a counter thinger. Can be difficult to see overgrown ground!
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Ariel reconnaisance
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You fly in a plane or look at pictures from a space ship
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Field walkers
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People walking around on the field on a survey.
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Difficulties with survey
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Someone often owns the land, so you need to get permission. Find out if there are large animals on site.
Sites very easy to miss. Could be in field with mad bull, very overgrown, wet year, etc. |
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What you can tell from a survey
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Proportion of schards is proportional to size of city, both in number and distance spread. Density count highest at center of the city! Record number of schards every 10 feet.
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What to look for in a survey
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Pottery. If pre-pottery, then stone tools.
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Tools of the trade for surveying
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-compass
-measuring tape -bags to collect stuff |
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Do you collect stuff as you survey?
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Some people don't pick anytrhing up
Some people tell oyou to go back and pick up diagnostic schards Intensive pickup: Every 3 or 4 feet picking up everything |
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Diagnostic schards
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schards that tell you type of pottery and date (bases, rims, and handles). Basic body schards with no paint could really be from anywhere!
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Periscoping
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Etrustan Tomb, frequently has all of the stuff, but air pressure turns everything to dust. Colonoscopy for a tomb! As camera goes into wall of tomb, self-sealing so no air gets in .
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Types of sampling
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Simple random sample
Stratified random Systematic Stratified unaligned systematic |
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Simple Random Sample (survey sampling)
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Split area into little segments. You drop in totally random areas.
Disadvantage: You can miss HUGE chunks! |
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Stratified random sample (Survey sampling)
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Shows the landscape! Equal number of samples to percentage of different landscape (85% flat and 15% forest, so 85% are on the flat, etc.)
You can still miss big things! |
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Systematic Sample (Survey sampling)
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You put squares every so often feet
You can miss whole cities in between And if the ancient people were also thinking in terms of north south east west, you could be surveying five feet over from where the city actually is. |
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Stratified unaligned systematic
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In case ancient people are as anal compulsive as me. Some squares off the North/South grid, but still stratified!
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Aerial photography (survey)
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Not cheap, but very effective!
If you look at site, you frequently see shadows. You take pictures with special glasses, stereotopics Crop marks! |
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Crop marks
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Usually mark antiquities buried. Affects color, density, and height of crops!
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Effect of ancient ditch on crop marks
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Higher crops...more access to nutrients!, etc.
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Effect of walls on crop marks
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Cause crops to grow shorter. Less access to resources!
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Space shuttle images
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Buy from NASA
You can see things in the forest! Lost city of Ubar, Oman! |
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Ubar, Oman
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Lost city!
2800 - 200 bc Purple lines on NASA photo are ancient camel paths! |
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Ground-penetrating radar
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Not going to use for a really big survey (extensive survey). Use for intensive survey. Looking for walls! You can get a sketch of stuff underneath. Hard to predict how far down walls will be. VERY EXPENSIVE.
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Extensive survey
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Very very big survey over large area
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Intensive survey
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Find one little area and look intensely at it
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Electronic Resistivity
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You stick needles in ground and measure how easy to get electricity to pass between the needles. Easy with wet soil (ditch). Harder between a wall. Not at all expensive!
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Magnometer
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Measures little fluctuations in earth's magnetic field, from iron.
Walls, pottery have iron! |
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Geographic Information System (GIS)
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Like GPS. Has almost replaced compasses!
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Total stations theodolite
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Very new, expensive. Tellsyou how far away you are, the angle, etc.
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Publishing surveyed data!
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Oral presentation and in journal
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Which survey method should I use?
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Depends on research questions!
Looking for more of the palace: electronic resonance Looking for towns and villages in countryside: only visited sites that other people had previously visited, resurveyed site and found that some areas were larger than people had thought |
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Things that an excavation director must be
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-Competent archaeologist
-Accountant (make up budgets, apply for grants) -Politician (lots of egoes and personalities, become skilled negotiator, interact with local people and government) -Facilitator, leader, teacher, learner, crisis manager :P -Doctor (emergency room at least twice a week!) -Mechanic (guy's engine crapped out in middle of Sarah. Gotta be able to fix that shit!) -Personnel manager (duh, lots of people) -Cook |
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People on your multidisciplinary team
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-Botanist
-geologist -Zoologist -Anthropologist studying group dynamics -Pottery expert -Earthquake specialist -Lab staff -Foremen -CRM staff |
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Total excavation
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Excavate the ENTIRE site
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When is total excavation useful?
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-tomb
-know that something's there but don't know where -If something's gonna ruin it (man or nature) -If so small not worth doing just part Salvage and CRM excavation |
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Selective excavation
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-select where at the site you excavate. What part? how much? Where?
-INTUITION big part. Vertical or horizontal excavation! |
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Vertical excavation
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Excavation undertaken to establish a chronological sequence, normally covering a limited area. Deep probe!
Step trenches, Kenyon-Wheeler Method, etc. |
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Step trench
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Dig first three metres, further out dig another three metres, etc., until you have what looks like a stairwell.
Vertical excavation |
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Test pits
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Vertical excavation
Also called sondages, or telephone booths. About 1m x 1m Can test to see if electric magnometer or other high tech things...worked? Are needed? |
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Horizontal excavation
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More exposure!
Expose on one level as much as you can. Go 5 or 10 feet deep. You'd rather do this when you have one city and want to see as much of it as possible. Examples: Canada, Colonial Williamsburgh, Mount Vernon distillery Equipment necessary: Backhoe (Saved more than 2 weeks of work in Kabri with 10 ft. of earth from avacado trees!) |
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Processes of Archaeological Excavation
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Excavation by visible layers
Excavation by arbitrary layers |
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Excavation by Visible Layers
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Dig according to layers that you can see!
Layers build up over time, natural stratigraphy. This method involves removing every visible layer in the site separately. Often used in cave sites, with complex stratigraphy, and on open sites such as bison kills on the Planes. |
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Excavation by Arbitrary Levels
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Soil removed in standard-sized arbitrary levels, which vary in size depending on nature of site (3 - 12 inches is normal).
Used when there is little discernible stratigraphy or variation in layers, each layer is screened carefully to recover artifacts and stuff. Can be good if your levels are really deep. BUT, this leads to going through a lot of floors. 99% of people do visible. Time is money! |
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Can you sit on the site?
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FUCKIN NO BITCH
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Sifting
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DON'T throw dirt out!
Not all the time, but if someone finds necklace with 4k beeds, if in are awith coins, if picking up a whole vase and don't want to miss pieces, finding skeletons, dead people you find on the floor. Dirt on the floor in general! |
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Flotation
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Floating meshes of dirt to find seeds
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Black/brown buckets hold:
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Dirt!
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Colored buckets hold:
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Bone, scherds, etc.!
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People who are sideways/upside down in pottery are:
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DEAD
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Lower Egypt/Upper Egypt
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Lower is at the top because the Nile flows backwards!
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Menes
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3300 - 3000 bc
Given credit for uniting upper and lower Egypt On pot, shown taking a prisoner and smiting it. Falcon in the corner is pharoh in bird form, uniting Egypt |
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Back side of the pot with Menes on ir
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War scene!
Intertwining necks are a theme. From Mesopotamia, aka trade connections! Theme of conquering. |
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Heiroglyphs
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Egyptian writing
The Rosetta Stone! Royal names in cartouches Picture could stand either for object OR first letter of word Can write left to right, right to left, up, down, etc. |
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Rosetta Stone
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Made heiroglyphs, Egyptian cursive, and GREEK
Found in VIllage of Rosetta in 1799 by Naopleon's soldiers Soldier digging a foxhole Even though people knew Greek, it took a while to decode. Finally decoded by Champollion! Text from not very important battle. Put up by Ptolemy 5th, Very repetitive. Repeats names of fathers and fathers, etc. Royal names in cartouches! |
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Scribes in ancient Egypt
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Only 1% of the population can read/write
So, scribes exhaulted! Always sitting with legs crossed Kings write messages to one another...messages between scribes in ink! |
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Papyrus
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Mash up wet reeds to make Papyrus
Wrote on with pen-like sticks. Two different colors of ink! |
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Red ink in Egyptian writing
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Breaks up the text. First word of next sentence! Acts as punctuation
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The Book of the Dead
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Guide to the afterlife. How to get past obstacles, etc.
Pop quiz at the end! This is an ancient cheat sheet. wealthy people carve words into tomb, others have written down. |
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The Book Of Going Forth By Day
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Weighing of the Heart Ceremony (balance heart with feather, if heart weighs more, you're fucked)
jackel-headed god takes your breath If your body falls apart, you're out of the afterlife! |
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Mummies
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All about staying in the afterlife
Early mummies, if you put body in sands of Egypt, naturally mummify! But sandstorms were becomming a problem. Then used mastabas to keep body down. |
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Mastaba
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Tomb put over body so body stays under sand
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How to mummify something
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Take body, slice downside.
Drain out most innards, put in jars Put nice-smelling stuff in and sew it back up Brain - thought intelligence was in heart, so took it out. Rich people brain hooked out through nose, poor people had brain melted by acid. Heart stays in. Put in natron for seven days. Then wrap up mummy. Accidents happen, neck can snap! Repair with stick, nobody knows difference! |
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Natron
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Type of salt that basically removes all water.
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Canopic Jars
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Jars in which various organs are held.
Duamutef, Qebehseneuf, Hapy, and Imsety. |
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Jackal-headed Duamutef
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Guards the STOMACH and UPPER INTESTINES..
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Falcon-headed Qebehseneuf
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Guards the LOWER INTESTINES
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Baboon-headed Hapy
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Guards the LUNGS.
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Human-headed Imsety
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Guards the LIVER.
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Step Pyramid
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of Djoser (Zoser)
c. 2686 bce First pyramid EVER Imhotep - revered as god of medicine, was really an architect! Stacked a bunch of mastabas, basically. Third dynasty...old kingdom! Pyramids always in complexes. |
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Pyramid complexes
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Buildings (shrines, empty spaces to honor memory, etc.
Gateway |
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Pyramids at Giza
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4th Dynasty
Pyramid age, 4500 years ago Father, son, grandson 2 smaller pyramids - the queens Originally covered in limestone...now mostly stolen! Mycerinus, Chephren (big one!), Cheops |
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Who chopped off the nose of the sphynx?
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A muslim who said it was pagan!
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Inside the pyramid
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made from HUGE blocks of limestone (up to 6ft tall)
original burial space down in the sand Herodemos says it takes 100k men working in 4 hour shifts for 20 years. How many people per shifts? Pharoah didn't die quick enough, so 2 chambers built Air shafts so workers could breathe Water vapor rots stone from inside. Put 2 Kenmore air conditioners in backwards |
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Who built the pyramids?
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Not slaves!
People to pay off debts and earning second income Built by farmers and peasants Public works project! Not Hebrew slaves...didn't even exist |
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Sphynx
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At entranceway to middle pyramid
Face modeled after guy who built the thing In middle of a quarry King uncovered sphynx from sand and became king! |
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Old Kingdom (time period)
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2700 - 2000 bce
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New Kingdom (time period)
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1500 -1100 bce
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New Kingdom
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Bit of a rough time beforehand, invaders during intermediate periods
18th - 20th dynasties Abandoned building pyramids since they kept getting looted Kings buried in guarded valleys (Valley of the Kings) |
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Valley of the Kings/King Tutankhamen
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-King Tut and Others
-only one queen (others in Valley of Queens) -Carter hired by Earl of Carnavan to find King Tutankhamen -The one place he hadn't looked was where he pitched his tent -Story of mummy's curse made up by bored reporter waiting for Carnavan -Carter had noticed different mud and seal than other tombs, had it been broken into? -Put tar under body so wouldn't [turn one?] -Pulled out with a crowbar -3 tomb (fourth tomb not his!) -Latest theory: broke his leg and died from an infection |
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Laetoli footprints
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-Volcano erupted, 3 people walked across, ash covers frozen, can still see the raindrops!
-2 small adults (4'8"), one considerably smaller -One set of footprints inside another. 20 ft. long, 70 footprints -BIPEDS <3 3.6 million years ago!!!!!!! |
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Lucy
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Found about 40% of her
About 2.9 million years ago between 4' and 4'8", died at age 20 Donald Johansen |
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Hobbits!
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18,000 years ago, humans in Australia!
About 3 feet tall, with heads the size of grapefruits |
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Excavation of Catalhöyük
Background stuff about Catalhöyük |
Excavated by James Mellaart in 50s and 60s
6500 - 5600 bce Pre-Pottery Neolithic B - PrePottery Neolithic A Used Kenyan-Wheeler method, but abandoned because houses were connected to each other |
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Neolithic era
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10,000 BCE, domesticated animals and farming
split into prepottery (split into A and B) and pottery |
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Re-excavation of Catalhöyük by Ian Hoddard
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Was sponsored by banks and evreything like that!
Mellaart left site exposed to the elements. Change from 50 years ago: make sure to preserve as well |
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Houses in Catalhöyük
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All hosues have common walls
No streets, no alleyways, and no doors or windows Climbing into houses on ladders through holes Roofs made out of mud and sticks Climbed through the roofs (defense against HUGE WILD ANIMALS coming into your home) |
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Horned things in Catalhöyük
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There were huge horns hanging on door and walls in Catalhöyük. Most real! HUGE bull-time animals. Bull's head made of mud, pictures on the walls too.
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Purpose of pictures of flying things on walls in Catalhöyük?
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Possibly put bodies on roofs and waited for vultures to eat flesh
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Wall painting in Catalhöyük
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Melted in the rain (Fuckin Mellaart)
Hunt! Men throwing spears, horses Either huge boar or huge bull (or just big because most important object is bigger) Collective, group hunting! MOST walls were painted (residential? could it be religious? 3-d sculpture? Were REALLY big on hunting. |
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Map in Catalhöyük!
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Bottom of Catalhöyük, volcano in the distance. Whole area scattered with obsidien
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Catalhöyük burials
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Articulated! Still semi-attached.
Disarticulated bones out of order Bones beneath the house Paint on bones? Grave goods (obsidian blade, ring wood things) |
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Catalhöyük figurines (animals + people)
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Cow, sheep, goat
All domesticated by 7,000 Religious? Toys? People figurines, woman. Giving birth? Fertility symbol? Mother goddess? Queen sitting on throne and fat? Paws of animal skin on shoulders? |
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Reasons why you settle somewhere
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1. Water
2. Food 3. Defense |
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Jericho (backgroundish sort of stuff?)
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Has an all-year water source! On the west bank
Garstand first excavator (said from 1400 bce, proof of bible?) |
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Kathleen Kenyon at Jericho
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Found Neolithic Jericho from 7500 bce (prepottery neolithic a)
Found 30 foot tower and big wall |
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The Tower of Jericho
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First defensive tower EVER.
Two purposes: hole at bottom, you can go up top. Found wheat, barley in dirt in tower. Was also a siloh! You could harvest whole town's worth of grain for a year in one week. Community effort! |
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Tombs at Jericho
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Had tombs as well as underneath homes
Lots of disarticulated bodies Put body in, someone else dies, they shove first guy aside Attached to skulls! |
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Skulls of Jericho
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Body goes into tomb without head
Has shells where eyes are, plastered with mud Put heads in corner of living room Probably ancestor worship Not only place! Some from Catalhöyük, 8 other ancient near east sites Could have been enemies? |
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Ur (background)
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year 2500 or 2600 bce
Frequently associated with Abraham Present-day Iraq The Sumerian Period - when Sumerians ruled ANE (Saddam Hussein reconstructed Ziggurat at Ur) Royal Death Pit Royal Standard |
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Royal Death Pit of Ur
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Found about 2500 graves
About 16 or 17 were royal. Only a couple were very wealthy. Servants go into tomb, drink poison to serve kind in afterlife 2 layers of servants for one king! -King in white dome -Queen Pu-Abi -Ram in a Thicket -Royal Harp |
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King in white dome (royal death pit of ur)
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Items missing from tomb!
When found queen's tomb, dug tunnel to king's tomb and robbed it |
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Queen Pu-Abi (royal death pit of Ur)
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Buried in her finery
Skull crushed servant girl from weight of the earth Whole necklace made out of lapis lazuli |
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Ram in a Thicket from Ur
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REALLY delicate.
Two of them found, one at UPenn, one in British museum |
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Royal Harp of Ur
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used same technique as in Pomepii to reconstruct. Then redecorated (it was made of wood!)
mythological scenes on it There WAS writing. Wrote stories on harp that made it into epic of Gilgamesh! |
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Other items found at royal death pit of Ur
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Golden dagger
Golden helmet |
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Royal Standard of Ur
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A box on a pole to be carried into battle?
Royal Box of uir Probably a battle depicted on the box. Chariot battle? Prisoners loot, booty on second layer Bring things to king, who were eating and drinking out of cups All bald, wore dreses, no shirts. One guy with hair, lpaying the harp! That's how they reconstructed the harp that they found. 4500 years old! Ho'shit! |
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Tollund Man
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2 guys cutting peat on bog in 1950, found body and called cops.
From 4th century BC (2400 years old!) Peat is a preserving agent, flesh preserved! Even stomach contents are preserved (ate grains) Acid in the peat eats away at the bones, makes them spongy Found in tollund Phen Beard kept growing post-mortem. Hanged! (executed? sacrificed?) Some bog people probably criminals, but some women and children? |
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Lindow Man
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50 - 100 ad
Discovered om 1989. Hit twice, strangled. Mugged? Murdered? Executed? Again, stomach contents had porridge in it. |
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Sutton Hoo
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Found in 1939. Saxon ship datets from 620 - 650 ad. Royal burial or cenotaph?
Almost NOTHING preserved. Shop itself completely gone. Ghost image, negative impression reconstructed based on stains in the soil. Soil so acidic that it ate the wood! No bodies either...did acid eat away? Nails in ship found! Lots of stuff found in ship: -shoulder clasp for cake/cloak, enamel inlayed -solid gold buckle, leather gone ***wealthy person!*** -satchel lid - hinges in back, clasp in front -helmet, functional for battle -drinking horns, for mead or beer |
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Cenotaph
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Empty tomb!
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Stuff found in Sutton Hoo ship
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-shoulder clasp for cape/cloak, enamel inlayed
-solid gold buckle, leather gone ***wealthy person!*** -satchel lid - hinges in back, clasp in front -helmet, functional for battle -drinking horns, for mead or beer |
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Dead Sea Scrolls
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On leather/parchment. Totally torn up from Israeli climate. Found in caves in Qumran.
Scrolls were library of settlement (hid library in caves when Romans invaded? If not, could be from temple in Jerusalem) Mostly biblical stuff. All Old testament (except...Ruth? Ester?) Found inkwells at site...same ink on scrolls? |
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Qumran
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8th century bce, reinhabited between 3rd cent. bc and 1st cent. bc, ending in 68 ad (romans destroyed it)
Not 100% that scrolls tied to Qumran communities Cemetery first threw archaeologists off. Thought that it was a monastery, but found women and children! |
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Qumran site plan
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Some baths, dining room
Father Duveau was first excavator, thought monks in Qumran wrote scripts. |
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Reconstructed scroll room of Qumran
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Father Duveau didn't reconstruct correctly! Actually a dining room?
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Finding of the Dead sea Scrolls
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Guy following herd at Ras Fashka
Threw stone into cave, heard pottery shattering, thought "Gold!" Found 10 scroll jars, one totally shattered In one jar, found scrolls. Sold scrolls in Bethlehem. Sold to Kando - leatherworker and antiquities dealer. Sold scrolls to Eliezer Sukenik |
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Eliezer Sukenik
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Was sold the first Dead Sea scrolls
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Languages on scrolls?
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Some Hebrew, some Greek, some Aramaic
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Three scrolls found in cave one
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-Thanksgiving scrolls
-War scrolls -Isaiah scroll |
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Thanksgiving scrolls
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From cave one
The prayers and hymns of thanks that community used |
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War scroll
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Waiting for doomsday (really outrageous scroll? sons of light versus sons of darkness!) [possibly written by the Escenes?]
From cave one |
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Isaiah scroll
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Cave one
Copy from bible next oldest copy is from 900 AD Only about 13 minor transcription differences! |
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Archbishop Samuel
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Had Sukenik authenticate, put on market for $5 million
Yigael Yadin (son of Sukenik) purchased! Ad in Wall Street Journal. Bought for $250,000, re-imbursed Israeli government |
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What did Yigael Yadin purchase?
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1) Copy of Isaiah
2) Manual of Discipline (v. strict) 3) Commentary of Habakkuk 4) Genesis Apocryphon (different versions Genesis! some didn't get in.) |
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The Cave of Horrors
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Found skeletons of people who starved from 1st and 2nd Jewish revolts. :-(
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Commentary of Habakkuk
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An uncommon interpretation of a biblical Book serving to condemn the "Wicked Priest" for persecuting the "Teacher of Righteousness"
Bought by Yigael Yadin. |
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Cave 3
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Only one scroll, broken into two pieces
Made of copper and engraved Took to Manchester tech and cut open. Treasure map!!! Lists 64 treasures and gives directions on how to find. Not one has been found. |
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Cave 4
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Scrolls not kept in jars, so not preserved
Holes ony big enough to hold pegs to hold shelves Scrolls fell to the floor and disintegrated into 15,000 pieces Didn't publish until 1990s, which ked to accusations of suppression!! |
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Cave 11
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Psalms scroll!
Infra-red photos can see what has been erased!! |
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Book of Samuel
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Late 3rd century BCE
Deutoronoy 32:8, "sons of God" Passage left out of modern bible, in translation, scribe wrote first paragraph, got distracted, thought he had written second paragraph because starts out the same way. SCRIBAL ERROR! |
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The Temple Scroll
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Not on the market until 1967. Offered for sale by Kando.
Intermediary Clergyman X from Virginia Was a blueprint for reconstructing the temple! |
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Messianic Version
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David-style messiah ruling both heaven and earth?
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Qumran babtismal pools
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People think that John the Baptist was at Qumran!
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Who controls the scrolls?
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Père de vaux put a white, male Christian group together to examine scrolls
In the 90s, demographics of interpretation changed, and then a lot of other otstuff changed -J.T. Milik (smoking near scrolls) -Strugnell (fired for anti-semetic statements) |
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Hunting Library in California
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new director in 90s
noticed air conditioned, opened bank vault Elizabeth Bektell had photographs of every fragment if Israel was destroyed New director made it public access. Now EVERYTHING is published. |
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Tenochtitlan
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1325 (most prominent) - 1519
AZTEC Under Mexico city. Difficult to excavate! Can excavate when stuff is under construction. Last of the great cities...Cortés came in in 1519 and brought smallpox and guns and horses City planned in quadrants! Calendar stone, found in 1970 |
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Population of Tenochtitlan
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About 100k in city proper
Lots of people to feed! Floating gardens |
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Templo Mayor
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Twin temples, dedicated to dieties
In Tenochtitlan Lots of bloodletting, heart-ripping-out, etc. Very violent! New graves found recently..possible sacrifices around temple? Skull rack! |
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Santorini/Thera
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Blew up in 1450 bc because of huge volcano
Ash fell on crete, allowing them to get invaded? One of largest explosions EVER |
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teotihuacán
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100 - 750 ce, era of prominence
pre-Aztec. Didn't know what language they spoke! Pyramid shapes only for temples in New World |
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Sun Pyramid and Moon Pyramid
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At Teotihuacán
Astronomical or astrological? Sun, built in six stages (levels). Looks a lot like step pyramid! |
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Temple of the Feathered Serpent
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Used to be called Temple of Quetzquotl, but now we're not sure if it WAS Quetzquotl!
Not too much left of day-to-day life |
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Chichen Iza
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Mayan
ad 600 - 1000 (prominence) Near Cancún, buried in jungle Lots of stuff about temples. Stuff on side of temples...part of religious presinct? Part of daily life? Temple of Kukulan, Temple of the Warriors (warrrior-like stuff found there), Ball Court, Cenotes |
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Temple of Kukulkan
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El Castillo
At Chichen Iza, Mayan |
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Ball Court of Chichen Iza
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Fire hockey and hop ball game. If you lose, you get decapitated.
Most major sites have these ball courts. Another skull rack! :-) |
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Cenotes
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Sink holes, natural place w/ water Mostly used in antiquity for sacrifice.
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Sipán
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Moche city
100 - 700 ce (prominence) On the coast. Only about last 20 years that public knows stuff. Very wealthy tomb! Lord of Sipán tomb |
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Lord of Sipán tomb
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-dates about a thousand years
-mud brick pyramids that have melted royalty buried inside big pyramid structures LOTS of illegal excavations/holes by looters |
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Discovery of Lord of Sipán tomb
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In 1987, looters fighting over gold in tomb, called police. Cops called Walter Alva.
Looted stuff was found OUT OF CONTEXT. Alva went back and found a lot of tomb 3 - 5 feet down from looter shaft, found a guy with no feet (guard, wouldn't run away?) |
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The Lord of Sipán
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About 40 years old at death
Few women and men around him, probably servants |
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Jewelry in Lord of Sipán tomb
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HUGE earrings, inlayed with turquoise and gold
New World equivalent to King Tut |
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Pottery vessels at Sipán
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Animals in shape of who people are
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Minoan Crete
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7 or 8 palaces
2000 - 1200 bce One of which is...Knossos! |
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Three phrases of Minoan Crete
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200 - 1700
1700 - 1450 1450 - 1200 |
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Knossos
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The Grand Daddy Palace
Sir Arthur Evans excavated Used paid local workers. Brought the land, was looking for capital city. New about King Minos (myth of Theseus, Ariadne, Minotaur) Evans reconstructed two stories (found stairs.) BUT, he ruined the context. How does he know what it looked like? Completely and forever alters the site. Stuff at knossos: -bull horn things -bathroom -8-shields figure -dolphin fresco -snake goddess -l parisienne -procession fresco -captain of the blacks -The Priest King fresco -Ivory flipping statuette -Bull head vases -Trading with Egypt -Corridors for storage |
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Observations of Knossos
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No fortified walls! No protection!
V. organized, massive multilevel structures. Community outside of palace, marketplace, etc. Not just a palace! Tiered off levels for shribs Multiple palaces...either unified, consolidated, run by members of the same family, etc. Redistribution center! Storing food...you give food, get chips, come back in winter, get clothes, food, etc. |
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Why no fortifications at Knossos?
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An Island...need a navy to attack!
Maybe 7 or 8 palaces were friendly...or family! |
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End of first phase of palace at Knossos
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In 1700, earthquake? Palace rebuilt in same spot, same pottery, same culture
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End of second phrase of palace at Knossos
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Crete invaded!
Painting more war-like, warriors buried, started using Linear B (first and second phrases: linear A) |
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Bull-horn-like things on ceiling in courtyard of Knossos/throne rooms
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Religious?
Courtyards - have throne rooms off to side. No label on throne...whose thrown? Originally only found one griffin, Evans reconstructed two! |
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Bathroom at Knossos
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Waterproof tub
Drainage system! |
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8 shields figure at Knossos
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Evidence of third phase...painting...war-like instead of nature-like
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Dolphin frescoes
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Evans reconstructed. Found this on the floor! Found evidence for two dolphins. Reconstructed five or six.
More likely floor paintings than wall paintings...found some other evidence of Minoan floor paintings At Knossos! |
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Snake goddess of Knossos
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Evans hired reconstruction artist to recreate two. Made nine orten...sold fakes
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La Parisienne (Knossos)
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Wearing make-up, elegant hairdo, uppoer-class
Dyed red white and blue (outfit). VERY hard to make! |
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Procession Fresco of Knossos
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You can tell age by hairstyle...shave locks of hair every year until twelve!
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Captain of the Blacks (Knossos)
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Mercenaries from Africa?
You don't even know IF he's leading anything! |
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The Priest King Fresco
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Most famous one. Really, really...wrong.
Actual fresco: Top: Headdress is real, connected to WHITE forehead (women painted white/yellow, men brown/red) Middle: Position of arm, middle, MAN (reddish-brown) boxing! Going to the RIGHT! Leg: Male going same way as woman's head. Put together three different frescoes?! Found in THREE DIFFERENT ROOMS! |
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Ivory flipping statue (Knossos)
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Way feet are, could not stand on its own. Part of bull-flipping sculpture?
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Trading with Egypt? (Minoan Crete/Knossos)
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Painting with bull/maze!
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Corridors for storage in Knossos
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Six-foot tall storage jars!
One level kept in ground for temperature control, and space! |
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Akrotiri
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City from Santorini. Pompeii of the Agean!
At least 10 years of warning, so not many bodies or small things. Guy who started the site was buried on the site. Fell off the baulk and broke his neck...was he pushed?! Lots of nature stuff...paintings. Minoan colony? Wall paintings preserved! Boxing children, nylotic fresco |
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Nylotic fresco
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River, papyrus. Evidence of trade with Egypt?
Blue monkeys REAL |
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Activity area
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A pattern of artifacts in a site indicating that a specific activity, such as stone tool making, took place
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Activity set
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A set of artifacts that reveals the activities of an individual
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Antiquarian
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Someone interested in the past who collects and digs up antiquities unscientifically, in contrast to the scientific archaeologist
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Archaeological culture
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A group of assemblages at several sites representing the surviving remains of an extinct culture
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Archaeological unit
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An arbitrary unit of classification set up by archaeologists to separate conveniently one grouping of artifacts in time and space from another
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Archaeomagnetic dating
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Chronometric dating using magnetic alignments from buried features, such as pottery kilns, which can be compared with known fluctuations in the earth's magnetic field to produce a date in years.
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Association
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The relationship between an artifact and other archaeological finds and a site level, or another artifact, structure, or feature in the site.
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Attribute
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A well-defined feature of an artifact that cannot be further subdivided. Archaeologists identify types of attributes, including form, style, and technology, in order to contribute and interpret artifacts
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Bowsing
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Technique for detecting buried features by thumping the ground and sensing the differences between compacted and undisturbed earth
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Cambium
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A viscid substance under the bark of trees in which the annual growth of wood and bark takes place.
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Component
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An association of all the artifacts from one occupation level at a site
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