A & P Exam 1

Front 1

What are the functions of the skeletal system

Back 1

Support, protection, local motion, mineral reserve, blood cell production

Front 2

What is the term for the study of bone and its components

Back 2

Osteology

Front 3

Which blood cells are produced in the red marrow

Back 3

White blood cells, red blood cells, platelets

Front 4

What is the term for the production of blood cells in the bone marrow

Back 4

Hematopoisis

Front 5

What is the percentage of calcium, phosphorus, sodium and magnesium of the body that is stored in the bone

Back 5

99% calcium, 80% phosphorus, 65% sodium and magnesium

Front 6

Label the long bone

Back 6

Front 7

What is the epiphyseal cartilage

Back 7

The plates between the diaphysis and epiphysis lines

Front 8

What is the articular cartilage

Back 8

The thin layer covering the epiphysis this is where the bone forms a joint with another bone

Front 9

What is the periosteum, what made of.

Back 9

Dense, fibrous connective tissue sheet I'll bring the phone except for on both ends it is made of collagen. It increases in the diameter of the bone and is the healing of fractures

Front 10

What is the endosteum

Back 10

Lines the medullary cavity and it mines the most canals within the bone. It is a one cell thick layer where the sounds can become osteoblasts if stimulated

Front 11

What is an osteoblast

Back 11

It lines the inner portion of the periosteum and makes bone when stimulated

Front 12

What is the medullary cavity and what is it made of

Back 12

Made up of fat within the shaft of the long bone and holds the blood vessels within the bone undiscovered by the endosteum

Front 13

What is the compact bone

Back 13

It is the outer layer of dense bone and always covers the spongy bone

Front 14

What is the spongy bone

Back 14

A trabecular bone is the inner bone that forms a calcified lettuce where red blood cells are made

Front 15

Label

Back 15

Front 16

What is in the spaces of the spongy bone

Back 16

L filled with red marrow which is the site of red blood cell production

Front 17

What is an osteocyte

Back 17

A mature bone cell

Front 18

Label and describe each

Back 18

Front 19

How often will the human body remodel the skeleton

Back 19

Every 10 years

Front 20

Describe Anatomy, embryology, histology, physiology

Back 20

Anatomy the study of form

Embryology the study of growth and development of an embryo

Histology the study of individual cells in a tissue

Physiology the study of function

Front 21

Describe the levels of organization in organisms starting with the largest

Back 21

The organism level: whole body,

body system level: the digestive level,

Organ level: stomach

Tissue level: layers of tissue

Cellular level: a cell in the stomach lining

Chemical level: I molecule in the membrane that encloses a cell

Front 22

What are the functions of cells

Back 22

They are responsible for growth, reproduction, metabolism, responses to stimuli

Front 23

Who discovered the cell and who made the cell theory

Back 23

Robert Hooke in 1665, schleiden and Schwann made the cell theory in 1893

Front 24

What are the major subdivisions of eukaryotic cells

Back 24

The plasma membrane the nucleus and the cytoplasm

Front 25

What are some characteristics that all cells share

Back 25

Growth, reproduction, absorption, secretion, respiration, and irritability

Front 26

What is the chemical composition that makes up the cell

Back 26

Water 70 to 90%, protein 10 to 20%, lipids 2 to 3%, carbohydrates about 1%, inorganic substances (minerals)

Front 27

Describe the role of water in the chemical composition of a cell

Back 27

The amount of water in the cell depends on the cell itself for example a dormant forage will have less water, the water makes up 80 to 85% of weight of most of the cells, allows for the absorption of heat for example heat regulation, maintains osmotic pressure, is a mediator for chemical reactions

Front 28

Describe the role of proteins in the chemical composition of a cell

Back 28

It is a structural component of the cell: proteins make up the membrane the microtubules and microfilaments (movement within cells, support and shape) of the cell

It is responsible for metabolic functions like enzymes hormones and plasma proteins

Front 29

What is a role that lipids play in the chemical composition of the cell

Back 29

They lost to the cell to be insoluble in water, they are responsible for energy reserve vitamins and waxes, hormones like steroids, and phospholipids and cholesterol (which are responsible for the structure of the cell).

Front 30

What is the role of carbohydrates in the chemical composition of a cell

Back 30

There an energy source ( monosaccharides like glucose and polysaccharides like glycogen)

Front 31

What are the role of minerals in the chemical composition of the cell

Back 31

Examples include calcium, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, iodine

They're responsible for nerve and muscle conduction of electrical impulse, co-factors for enzymes, structure of molecules, maintain pH balance, maintain osmotic pressure

Front 32

Describe the parts of a prokaryotic cell

Back 32

It has no membrane-bound organelles like the nucleus, it has a cell wall, the DNA in the cytoplasm, chromosomes are circular, they have extremely complex activity, hundreds of thousands of genes, their DNA is located in a nucleoid which is not a nucleus but it's just a grouping of the DNA, they also have a plasma membrane, almost every one of the genes has a specific function whereas in eukaryotic cells 90% of the human genome does not code for protein

Front 33

Describe the physical components of an animal cell

Back 33

Plasma membrane, microfilaments, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, nucleus, nuclear pore, free ribosomes, periosteum, mitochondria, lysosomes, microtubules, vesicles, Golgi apparatus

Front 34

Describe the cellular membrane and its components

Back 34

The cell or plasma membrane is selectively permeable is composed primarily of lipids and proteins is the outer covering of the cell, has pores known as angstroms, composed primarily of lipid and protein, is the physical boundary, is a bilayer of phospholipids where the polar heads are hydrophilic and the nonpolar phospholipid tails are hydrophobic it has transmembrane proteins, carbohydrates

Front 35

Describe the nucleus

Back 35

The largest organelle in the animal cell, contains DNA, is the control center of the cell

Front 36

Describe the endoplasmic reticulum and its components

Back 36

They're smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum where the rough has attached ribosomes and this moves does not, connects with the nuclear envelope, the ribosomes manufacture proteins, the smooth ER synthesizes lipids,

Front 37

Describe the Golgi apparatus and it's functions

Back 37

Has a membrane structure, is responsible for protein modifications like attaching carbs, protein packaging, is where the newly synthesized proteins from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum go before leaving cell, what's the protein gets folded in the carbs get added the edges get pinched off as secretory vesicles

Front 38

Describe the functions of lysosomes

Back 38

There are membrane-bound and are the recycling center on garbage disposal, they're filled with enzymes that break down worn-out organelles, they are endrolytic (breakdown) , when a cell dies the lysosomes rupture and digest and remove the cell

Front 39

Describe the basic structure and function of mitochondria

Back 39

They have a double unit membrane, they turn glucose into ATP and they produced 90% are the energy of the body

Front 40

What is adenosine triphosphate

Back 40

ATP

Front 41

Describe the components of the cellular membrane

Back 41

Integral proteins, receptor proteins, cholesterol, lipid bilayer, carbohydrate, carrier proteins, microtubules

Front 42

What does permeability across the lipid bilayer depend on

Back 42

The amount of lipid solubility so the higher the better like alcohol lipids and VFAs, precise so smaller the size the better, polarity so if it has a charge it will not go through

Front 43

Describe active and passive forces needed to produce movement of particles across the membrane

Back 43

Passive forces do not require the cell to expend energy, active forces require cellular energy

Front 44

What are the types of diffusion across the membrane of a cell

Back 44

Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

Filtration

Active Transport

Vesicular transport

Front 45

Describe diffusion and how it may occur across the cell membrane

Back 45

where no energy is required, the molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration to reach equilibrium were there is no concentration gradient.

Diffusion may occur if the concentration gradient occurs, it's substances or small enough like H2O sodium potassium and chlorine, if the substance is lipid soluble, if the electrical charge is negative (because the pores are lined with positive charge from the calcium and therefore there will be a repeal if the substance that is trying to get through is positive)

Front 46

Describe facilitated diffusion and how it occurs

Back 46

This is the protein mediated transport and needs some assistance. No energy is required. This one can transport small water soluble substances. The substance must have a concentration gradient along with a carrier protein to go through the membrane. This type of membrane transport involves a transmembrane protein that exposes The binding site to the higher concentration gradient and allows the solid to bind to The binding site then, like a door, the protein changes confirmation so that the binding site is exposed to the region of lower concentration

Front 47

Describe the mechanism by which glucose enters the cell and provide the reason why I cannot enter on its own

Back 47

Glucose is too large and is not lipid soluble therefore it needs transmembrane proteins to get across the membrane through what is known as facilitated diffusion.

Front 48

Describe osmosis and how it works.

Back 48

Osmosis is the net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. No energy is expended. Is dependent on osmotic pressure which is the force generated by any solute to which the membrane is not permeable.

Front 49

Define osmotic and hydrostatic pressure

Back 49

Osmotic pressure is the force generated by any solid to which the membrane is not permeable

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that opposes osmosis. It is the force of water on the membrane

Front 50

Define tonicity

Back 50

The effect of solute concentration on cell volume

Front 51

Define isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic solution

Back 51

Isotonic is where the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of the cell membrane, hypotonic solution this weather is lower osmotic pressure than in normal cells, hypertonic solution is where there is higher osmotic pressure than a normal cells

Front 52

What happens when a cell is put into hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic solution

Back 52

If the cell is put in hypotonic solution then the osmotic pressure is lower therefore the cell will increase in volume because there will be more solute inside the cell than outside the cell

if the cell is put in hypertonic solution than the osmotic pressure is higher then in normal cells and therefore the cells will shrink because the water within the cell will have moved out

If the cell is put in isotonic solution then the osmotic pressure is equivalent to that of a normal cell and the cell will remain the same

Front 53

Explain filtration which organs of the body use this method of membrane transportation

Back 53

Filtration uses gravity and or hydrostatic pressure gradient. It's speeds up diffusion and does not require energy, the kidneys use the filtration system

Front 54

How do kidneys use the filtration system

Back 54

Water and molecules like urea and glucose are filtered out of the blood under hydrostatic pressure where water is pulled back in by osmotic pressure and solutes by diffusion

Front 55

Describe active transport and how it works

Back 55

Active transport is used to move against the concentration gradient and this requires energy and proteins. Uses a sodium and potassium pump to maintain sodium and potassium cation concentration gradients across the plasma membrane. This helps to generate electrical signals and regulate cell volume.

Front 56

What is the process by which cells move big molecules into the cell non selectively

Back 56

Endocytosis

Front 57

Describe the two types of endocytosis

Back 57

Pinocytosis AKA cell drinking, non selectively moves large particles in fluid into the cell, the cell membrane then develops an indentation with fluid and closes around it creating a vesicle, this vesicle then goes into the lysosome where it will be ruptured and then used for nutrients

Phagocytosis AK cell eating, gets rid of the bad products, the white blood cells engulf and destroy bacteria by sending out a pseudopod to engulf an old and dying red blood cell to get rid of it.

Front 58

What is the name of the vesicular transport in which a product is released out of the cell

Back 58

Exocytosis which is a secretory process meaning that it releases valuable products out of the cell an example of these large materials that need to go out of the cell would be hormones that are synthesized within the cell. The vesicles which have a lipid bilayer fuse with the cell membrane to release the valuable product out of the cell and into the body

Front 59

Describe facilitated diffusion and how it may occur across the cell membrane

Back 59

A protein mediated transport that does not require energy, it can transport small water soluble substances, must have a concentration gradient and a carrier protein in order to go through the membrane the type of protein it needs is a transmembrane protein known as a carrier protein which accepts the solute molecule into The binding site and then opens and releases the molecule on the opposite side of the membrane in the direction of the concentration gradient

Front 60

What are chondrocytes

Back 60

Chondrocytes are cells that form cartilage on which the osteoblasts lay down the bone matrix

Front 61

Describe the chemical composition of bone

Back 61

On a dry weight bases 25% of the osteoid matrix is made of collagen which is responsible for the tensile strength that allows the bone to resist sheering

75% of the bone is made up of minerals which is responsible for the compression strength. These minerals make up the hydroxyapatite crystals made of calcium and phosphorus which are either absorbed or adsorbed

Front 62

What is the difference between adsorbed and absorbed

Back 62

Adsorbed is extraneous solution that is just a thought to the bone matrix fortnite cama This is is where readily available Ca lies

Absorbed is integrated as part of the collagen on the bone matrix

Front 63

Where are the hydroxyapatite crystals that contain calcium and phosphate located

Back 63

They are located on the collagen fibers in The osteoid matrix of the bone

Front 64

Which cells make up the bone and what are their functions

Back 64

Osteoblasts which are bone-forming cells that respond to the growth hormone and lay down bone matrix (osteoid) and collagen fibers

Osteocytes which are mature bone cells that used to be osteoblast but got trapped in the bone matrix I no longer secrete bone matrix

Osteoclasts which are the bone destroying cells that are able to digest the bone matrix. They are large, motile, and often multinucleated. They are bone reabsorbing cells and help supply the calcium to the body. They secrete acids that work to chew up the cells as well as collagenase which breaks down calcium

Front 65

What is the skeleton of an embryo composed of

Back 65

Cartilage and fibrous membrane which are shaped like bones and provide the precursor for ossification which continues into adulthood

Front 66

What are the three types of ossification

Back 66

Endochondral ossification, develops from cartilage

Intramembranous ossification, direct bone formation

Heteroplastic ossification, formed in tissue other than the skeleton

Front 67

Describe endochondral ossification

Back 67

It also flies normally on top of cartilage and mostly happens in the fetus but continues after birth. Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate. Most long bones grow by endochondral ossification

Front 68

What happens if endochondral ossification is delayed and if it is too fast

Back 68

If it is delayed than it is to slow and therefore the epiphyseal plates do not close up fast enough causing the bones to continue to grow causing gigantism.

if it is too fast then the epiphyseal plates close up too soon and the bones stop growing early in life causing achondroplastic dwarf

Front 69

Describe intramembranous ossification

Back 69

Hear the bone is formed without cartilage. An example of this would be babies that have sutures on the school that will come together to harden and protect the brain but are soft so that the baby has to fit through the birth canal. this type of ossification is preformed in fibrous tissue that is later infiltrated with osteoid tissue. This is most common in flat bones like the skull the face and the mandible, and the scapula. Does ossification still has osteoblasts that lay down bone matrix

Front 70

Describe hydroplastic ossification

Back 70

This type of ossification is isolated to specific groups of animals. Here the bone is not part of the skeletal system. Examples of this would be Os Cordis and Os Penis

Front 71

From where does the body get calcium and phosphorus

Back 71

From the diet

Calcium, dairy products like milk when you're young and forages like legumes alfalfa and supplements

Phosphorus also from dairy products and meat and grains

Front 72

How is calcium absorbed and where is it absorbed

Back 72

Calcium is a hard to absorb cation and therefore requires vitamin D because it cannot be absorbed by itself, it is absorbed in the duodenum of the small intestine

Front 73

How is phosphate absorbed

Back 73

Phosphate is an easier absorbed and I on and is absorbed after the site of calcium absorption

Front 74

What is the ratio of calcium to phosphorus in dietary consumption

Back 74

2 to 1 ratio more calcium must have twice as much because you only get half of it

Front 75

Where in the body is calcium found

Back 75

About 50% of it is combined with plasma proteins, 5% is bound to organic material like citrate, and 45% of it is actually usable and diffusible, 4.5 mg per deciliter

Front 76

Where in the body is phosphorus found and how much is usable

Back 76

It is found throughout the body at 4.5 mg per deciliter and it is all usable on diffusible

Front 77

Through what process are hydroxyapatite crystals formed

Back 77

Through precipitation

Front 78

What cells inhibit ossification, how do scientists know this, and which cells produce materials that override the inhibitors

Back 78

Non bone cells like pyrophosphate and fibroblasts inhibit ossification and precipitation. Scientist know this because when they took collagen fibers and washed out the fibroblasts from these fibers and place them in a petri dish an added calcium and phosphorus, hydroxyapatite crystals formed.

osteoblasts produce materials that override the inhibitors and allow for normal precipitation and ossification

Front 79

What are the functions of calcium

Back 79

It is a single most tightly regulated ion in the body

Bone growth

Nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction

Bone formation

Blood clotting

Second messenger systems like how the cell takes a signal and do something with it

Milk formation

Exocytosis which is induced by calcium

Regulation of enzymes and hormones

Front 80

What are the functions of phosphorus

Back 80

Bone growth, milk production, producing energy in reactions, phospholipids, fossil proteins which of the active form of proteins, are the backbone of DNA and RNA

Front 81

How is calcium regulated in the body

Back 81

Through the endocrine system.

Front 82

What is hypercalcemia and what happens

Back 82

Hypercalcemia is too much calcium. Usually causes a sluggish nervous system where the neuron channels are gated by the calcium and if the calcium is too high than the neuron cannot fire. Just causes constipation muscular weakness I'm calcium phosphate precipitation in the soft tissues which proves to be fatal

Front 83

What is hypocalcemia and what are some examples of hypocalcemia

Back 83

Hypocalcemia hyper excitability of nervous system is when the calcium levels are low. This means there is not enough calcium to block the channels which causes leaking of sodium into the cell causing the firing of action potential. Some examples of this would be tetany were there is no rest between pulses and leads to death. And milk fever where after the baby is born there's not enough calcium in the body because of how much milk is produced. This is also fatal unless given a special diet of low calcium before the baby is born to get the body to kick on its own mechanisms to be prepared for the new change

Front 84

How does the osteoclast work

Back 84

Osteoclasts release collagenase and acid which break down the collagen and solubilize the crystals to release calcium and phosphorus.the osteoclast forms an area of bone resorption underneath the apical membrane where enzymes are secreted to dissolve calcium phosphate in the bone. Osteoclasts have multiple nuclei in a wrinkled edge of the bottom known as the apical membrane

Front 85

What is osteoporosis

Back 85

Osteoporosis is bone loss and this occurs when the osteoclasts is uncontrolled and continues to break down bone without regulation

Front 86

Describe bone deposition, bone reabsorption, and bone remodeling

Back 86

Bone deposition and reabsorption happen only in adults

Bone deposition: is done by the osteoblast that is controlled by the growth hormone,

Bone reabsorption is done by the osteoclast that is controlled by the parathyroid hormone and the thyrocalcitonin

Bone remodeling is adult repair and maintenance which is rebuilt every 10 years

Front 87

What is acromegaly

Back 87

Usually happens in a adults when a tumor that produces too much growth hormone and causes the bones to grow, however because the epiphyseal plate has already closed the bones cannot get taller and can only grow in density

Front 88

Which cells produce parathyroid hormone and where are they located

Back 88

Chief cells located on the parathyroid glands produce pth and read calcium levels in the blood

Front 89

Describe how the parathyroid hormone is made, what it looks like, and what it does

Back 89

It is an 84 amino acid polypeptide that is packaged in the Golgi into secretary vesicles and secreted by exocytosis. It is regulated by changes in the calcium which are detected through the calcium receptors on the chief cells. A decrease in calcium means an increase in parathyroid hormone. The osteoclast is the effector cell because the parathyroid hormone is affecting the osteoclasts by telling it to go.

Front 90

Explain the parathyroid mechanism of action

Back 90

The parathyroid membrane receptor receives the parathyroid hormone signal which activates the g protein relay which then ( along with ATP) activates the adenylate cyclase transmembrane protein to activate the second messenger (cAMP) which stimulates the PK to phosphorylate the proteins required for cell response which in this case is the release of acids and protolytic enzymes from the osteoclasts

Hint 90

Front 91

What are the parathyroid hormone effector organs

Back 91

The bone witch acts on osteoclasts,

the kidney which is responsible for bone break down and also releases phosphate where the parathyroid hormone tells the kidney to excrete excess and retain calcium it also acts on cells in the renal proximal tubule of nephron to conserve calcium

the small intestine which a source of calcium

And he gut which is responsible for the absorption of calcium through vitamin D

Front 92

Which hormone counteracts the parathyroid hormone and where are the located

Back 92

Calcitonin produced from the parafollicular cells ( found nestled in the spaces between the follicles) on the thyroid gland.

Front 93

What happens when there is increased thyrocalcitonin

Back 93

There's a decrease in osteoclastic osteolysis

There's also a decrease in vitamin D synthesis or the overall goal is to slow calcium uptake in the gut

It increases urinary excretion of calcium and phosphorus

This whole process is fast but short-term

Front 94

What is osteoclastic osteolysis

Back 94

Bone break down

Front 95

Describe the relationship between PTH and TCT

Back 95

Thyrocalcitonin stops osteoclastic osteolysis and is a rapid regulator of hypercalcemia if both pair of thyroid hormone and thyroid calcitonin are in the system together a high enough levels than the parathyroid hormone will override the thyrocalcitonin. This is known as the escape phenomenon. Parathyroid hormone is a day in and day out regulator wild thyrocalcitonin typically appears only after meals

Front 96

What are the three disorders in calcium metabolism that affect bone

Back 96

Hypoparathyroidism, excessive calcium demands, hyperparathyroidism.

Hypoparathyroidism is were very little parathyroid gland, this means you can't utilize parathyroid hormone and therefore there is a drop in blood calcium which causes bone weakness and fractures as well as hypocalcemia that leads to tetany that leads to death. The treatment for this is a controlled diet to increase calcium and vitamin D

Excessive calcium demands leads to milk fever also known as parturient parasis which leads to rapid loss of calcium in colostrum after birth. This decrease blood calcium will increase the parathyroid hormone and lead to tetany which leads to death because parathyroid can't fix calcium levels fast enough. You can avoid this by lowering the calcium in the diet a few weeks before Patricia and treat the animal with an intravenous slow drip of calcium gluconate

Hyperparathyroidism this is where there is a problem with the gland or tumor cells are producing the hormone and do not respond to the normal turn off mechanism. This leads to increase parathyroid hormone which leads to osteoclastic osteolysis which then leads to an increased calcium. There's also nutritional hyperparathyroidism where there is either low dietary calcium or high dietary phosphorus or low vitamin D with the calcium. Many poisonous plants have calcium chelation, or might have a kidney disease where kidney does not excrete phosphorus and calcium phosphorus deposits crystals on the soft tissue which leads to renal rickets are the kidneys turn to Stone

Front 97

Describe the importance of vitamin D and what happens without it

Back 97

Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets a bone disease in children where the parathyroid hormone release increases causing phone break down. Vitamin D is stored in liver and is fat soluble

Front 98

What happens if the liver cannot make bile

Back 98

Then it cannot absorb fat-soluble vitamins like a, d, e, k. This leads to osteomalacia which is basically adult rickets

Front 99

What are some bone abnormalities

Back 99

Osteoporosis which is most common in postmenopausal women estradiol involved in bone formation where bones get weak and leads to Boeing of back the treatment in is estrogen replacement and calcium replacement

Cancers like osteoma which is a benign tumor of osteoblasts and osteosarcoma which is a malignant tumor of bone