Statistics, U Of U Edps 6010 - Test 1

Front 1

Scientific Method

Back 1

A set of rules consisting of certain assumptions, attitudes, goals, and procedures for creating and answering questions about nature. (pg 6)

Front 2

Lawful

Back 2

Meaning that every event can be understood as a predictable sequence of natural causes and effects. (Opposite of random) (pg 7)

Front 3

Determinism

Back 3

Means that behavior is solely influenced by natural causes and does not depend on an individual's choice or "free will." (pg 7)

Front 4

If a behavior is to be studied scientifically, it must be assumed to be _______, _______, and ________.

Back 4

Lawful, Determined, and Understandable. (pg 7)

Front 5

Scientists are _____, _____, ______, _____ and ______.

Back 5

Uncertain, Open-minded, Skeptical, Cautious, and Ethical.

Front 6

What are the variables to consider that might impact outcomes when designing a study?

Back 6

1) Subject/Participants

2) Researcher

3) Environment

4) Measurement

(pg 9)

Front 7

Acceptable scientific evidence is obtained through _____, _____, _____, and _____ research.

Back 7

Empirical, Objective, Systematic, and Controlled (pg 11)

Front 8

To completely understand a behavior, researchers strive to _____, _____, and _____.

Back 8

Describe it, Explain its causes, Predict and control its occurrence. (pg 12)

Front 9

Applied Research

Back 9

Conducted for the purpose of solving an existing real-life problem. (pg 13)

Front 10

Basic Research

Back 10

Conducted simply for the knowledge it produces. It seeks to build theories that explain nature without regard for the application of these theories. (pg 13)

Front 11

Hypothesis

Back 11

A formally stated expectation about how a behavior operates. (pg 14)

Front 12

Casual Hypothesis

Back 12

Tentatively identifies a particular cause for, or influence on, a behavior. (pg 14-15)

Front 13

Descriptive Hypothesis

Back 13

This tentatively describes a behavior in terms of its characteristics or the situation in which it occurs, and allows us to predict when it occurs. (pg 15)

Front 14

A scientific hypothesis must be _____, _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Back 14

Falsifiable, Testable, Precise, Rational, and Parsimonious. (pg 16)

Front 15

Testable

Back 15

Means that it is possible to devise a test of a hypothesis. (pg 15)

Front 16

Falsifiable

Back 16

Means that the test can potentially show that the hypothesis is incorrect. (pg 15)

Front 17

Precise Hypothesis

Back 17

Contains terms that are clearly defined. The use of ambiguous terms opens the hypothesis to interpretation and opinion, making it less clearly testable and falsifiable. (pg 16)

Front 18

Rational Hypothesis

Back 18

Logically fits what is already known about the laws of the behavior. (pg 16)

Front 19

Parsimonious Hypothesis

Back 19

This means the hypothesis is as simple as possible. The rule of parsimony says that we begin with relatively simple hypotheses that apply to broad categories of behaviors. Then, only if the simple explanations fail to account for a behavior are we justified in proposing new, more complex ones. (pg 16)

Front 20

What is the flow of scientific research?

Back 20

1) Form hypothesis fromtheory, model, or observations

2) Design study totest hypothesis

3) Derivepredictions

4) Conduct study andtest predictions

5) Confirm or revisehypothesis depending on observations

6) Modify theoreticalconcepts

Front 21

Theory

Back 21

An integrated set of proposals that defines, explains, organizes, and interrelates knowledge about many behaviors. (pg 17)

Front 22

Model

Back 22

A description that , by analogy, explains the process underlying particular behaviors. (pg 17)

Front 23

Flaws in Evidence

Back 23

1) Design decisions bring down the confidence in the findings.

2) Technical limitations may mislead.

3) One study does not always show the whole story.

Front 24

Disconfirmation

Back 24

When you have evidence that they hypothesis is false. (pg 21)

Front 25

Confirmation

Back 25

When your finding is consistent with the hypothesis. (pg 21)

Front 26

Literal Replication

Back 26

When the researcher tries to duplicate precisely the specific design and results of a previous study. (pg 23)

Front 27

Conceptual Replication

Back 27

When the researcher provides additional confirmation of a hypothesis, but does so while measuring the behavior in a different way, examining different types of participants, or using a different design. (pg 23)

Front 28

Population

Back 28

The entire group to which a scientific law applies. (pg 29)

Front 29

Sample

Back 29

A subset of a population that is intended to represent, or stand in for, the population. It is the sample or samples of participants that are measured in a study, and scores from the sample(s) constitute the data. (pg 29)

Front 30

Representative Sample

Back 30

The characteristics of the participants - and thus their behaviors - accurately reflect the characteristics and behaviors of individuals in the population. (pg 30)

Front 31

Random Sampling

Back 31

A method of selecting a sample in which (1) all members of the population have the same chance of being selected for a sample, and (2) all the possible samples have the same chance of being selected. (pg 30)

Front 32

Hypothetical Construct

Back 32

An abstract concept used in a particular theoretical manner to relate different behaviors according to their underlying features or causes.

Front 33

Variable

Back 33

Any measurable aspect of a behavior or influence on a behavior that may change.

Front 34

Quantitative Variable

Back 34

When a score indicates the amount of a variable that is present. (pg 32)

Front 35

Qualitative Variable

Back 35

Variables that cannot be measured in amounts, but rather classifies individual on the basis of some characteristic. (pg 32)

Front 36

Operational Definition

Back 36

Defines a variable by the specific operations used to measure it. (pg 32)

Front 37

Relationship

Back 37

Occurs when a change in on variable is accompanied by a consistent change in another variable. (pg 33)

Front 38

Descriptive Statistics

Back 38

Used to determine whether a relationship is present, to describe the relationship and the scores in it, and to predict the scores on one variable using the scores on another variable. (pg 39)

Front 39

Inferential Statistics

Back 39

Helps us draw inferences about the population. (pg 39-40)

Front 40

Independent Variable

Back 40

A variable that is directly changed or manipulated by the experimenter. AKA: a factor. (pg 42)

Front 41

Dependent Variable

Back 41

The variables that are measured to see if the independent variable had an effect. These are effect or outcome variables. (pg 45)

Front 42

Confederates

Back 42

People enlisted by a researcher to act as other participants or "accidental" passers-by, thus creating a particular social situation in which the "real" participants are observed.

Front 43

Condition

Back 43

A specific amount or category of the independent variable that the researcher selects to create the situation under with the participants are observed. AKA: level or treatment. (pg 43)

Front 44

Control Group

Back 44

A group of participants that is measured on the dependent variable but receives zero amount of the independent variable, or otherwise does not receive any treatment. (pg 43)

Front 45

Experimental Group

Back 45

A group that receives a nonzero amount of the independent variable or otherwise does experience the treatment. (pg 43)

Front 46

True Experiment

Back 46

The independent variable is controlled by the researcher. In a true experiment, subjects can be randomly assigned to conditions. Only true experiments allow the assessment of causality. (pg 44)

Front 47

Conceptual Definition

Back 47

Provides theoretical or conceptual explanations for constructs.

Front 48

Operational Definition

Back 48

Make the definition EXPLICIT by providing empirical referents for constructs

Front 49

Strength of a relationship

Back 49

the extent to which one value of the IV (Y) is consistently associated with one and only one value of the DV (X). Can be weakened by uncontrolled variables and individual differences. (pg 35)

Front 50

Quasi-experiment

Back 50

subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions. The subjects come in pre-existing groups (e.g., males and females). Such studies cannot assess questions of causality. (pg 44)

Front 51

Correlational Design

Back 51

Where you measure two or more variables, and look for a predicted relationship.

Front 52

Correlation

Back 52

The extent to which two sets of scores are related.

Front 53

Correlation Coefficient

Back 53

a statistic (r) between -1 and +1 that describes the STRENGTH and DIRECTION of a relationship

Front 54

Positive Correlation

Back 54

Both variables move up or down together (i.e., the more money that a school has, the high the percentage of graduates)

Front 55

Negative Correlation

Back 55

As one variable goes up, the other variable goes down(i.e., the more money that a school has, the lower the dropout rate)

Front 56

Extraneous Variable

Back 56

Any variable that can potentially influence our results, but is NOT a variable we wish to study. When it changes unsystematically, it will reduce the reliability of our data. (pg 59)

Front 57

Reliability

Back 57

The degree to which the same event or behavior produces the same score each time it is measured. (pg 61)

Front 58

Validity

Back 58

The extent to which a procedure measures what it is intended to measure. (pg 62)

Front 59

Content Validity

Back 59

Refers to whether we actually and only measure the intended variable. (pg 62-63)

Front 60

Construct Validity

Back 60

The extent to which a measurement reflects on the hypothetical construct of interest. (pg 62-63)

Front 61

Internal Validity

Back 61

The degree to which the mathematical relationship we observe between the scores actually and only reflects only the relationship between the intended variables. (pg 63)

Front 62

Confounding Variables

Back 62

An extraneous variable that systematically changes along with a variable of interest. (pg 63)

Front 63

External Validity

Back 63

The degree to which we can draw the correct inferences when generalizing beyond a study. It is the question of whether the study provides a good example of the relationship that occurs in situations "external" to our study. (pg 63-64)

Front 64

Ecological Validity

Back 64

The extent to which the situation and behaviors in a study are found in the natural environment. If a design does not have ecological validity, we end up focusing on what participants can do in a study instead of what they usually do in every day life. (pg 65)

Front 65

Predictive Validity

Back 65

The degree to which one variable is related to (that is, can predict) another variable.

Front 66

Population Generalizability

Back 66

deals with how well the study will generalize to other groups of people.

Front 67

To control extraneous variables, we _____, _____, _____, or _____.

Back 67

Eliminate them, Keep them constant, Build them into the design. (pg 68 + class slides)

Front 68

Descriptive Studies

Back 68

Tend to be high in external validity and low in internal validity.

Descriptive research tends to have weak internal validity because of likely confounding variables.

Descriptive approaches tend to have greater external validity but less internal validity than experiments. (pg 69)

Front 69

Designing the independent variable involves _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Back 69

Selecting the number of conditions and their amounts, minimizing confounding, employing a strong manipulation, and performing a manipulation check. (pg 82)

Front 70

Strong Manipulation

Back 70

This produces conditions so that, if the hypothesis is correct, we are likely to see large differences in scores between the conditions. (pg 81)

Front 71

Manipulation Check

Back 71

A measurement, in addition to the dependent variable, that determines whether each condition of the independent variable had its intended effect. (pg 82)

Front 72

First steps to Designing the Dependent Variable:

Back 72

1) Design/create the scoring criteria.

2) Try to create a sensitive dependent variable.

3) Avoid restriction of range. (Ceiling/Floor Effects) (pg 82-84)

Front 73

Scoring Criteria

Back 73

System for assigning scores to different responses. Precise scoring criteria that focus on observable behaviors are necessary for measuring a behavior reliably. (pg 83)

Front 74

Sensitive Measure

Back 74

Produces different scores for small differences in behavior which lets us detect even a small influence on responses that a manipulation may produce. (pg 83)

Front 75

Ceiling Effects

Back 75

The items are all "easy" and everyone receives "high" scores (pg 84)

Front 76

Floor Effects

Back 76

The items are all “hard” and everyone receives “low” scores (pg 84)

Front 77

Restriction of Range

Back 77

Occurs when the range of possible scores on a variable is limited. (pg 84)

Front 78

Practice Trials

Back 78

We test participants as in the real study, but then ignore the scores from these trials when analyzing the results. Practice allows the participant to become familiar with the experimental task. (pg 85)

Front 79

Multiple Trials

Back 79

Collecting multiple trials per condition reduces error by averaging over effects that are unique to particular trials. (pg 85)

Front 80

Order Effects

Back 80

The influence on a particular trial that arises from its position in the sequence of trials. (pg 86)

Front 81

Practice Effects

Back 81

Refers to the fact that performance improves with practice, then deteriorates with fatigue. (pg 86)

Front 82

Carryover Effects

Back 82

Refer to the influence that a particular trial has on performance of subsequent trials. (pg 86)

Front 83

Response Set

Back 83

The tendency to respond in a particular way because of previous responses made. (pg 86)

Front 84

Counterbalancing

Back 84

Sytematically changing the order of trials for different subjects in a balanced way to counter the biasing influence of any one order. (pg 86)

Front 85

To maintain consistency and control extraneous variables, you must _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Back 85

Create clear instructions, Employ automation but limit instrumentation effects, Consider group testing, and Conduct pilot studies. (pg 89-90)

Front 86

Automation

Back 86

Using electronic or mechanical devices to present stimuli and to measure and record responses. (pg 89)

Front 87

Instrumentation Effects

Back 87

Changes in the measurement materials that occur because of use, making the measurements less reliable. (pg 89)

Front 88

Advantages of Group Testing are _____, and _____.

Back 88

Data collection is more efficient, and If you can test everyone in a condition at once, all participants will experience the same consistent condition. (pg 89)

Front 89

Pilot Study

Back 89

A miniature version of a study that tests the procedure prior to the actual study. (pg 89)

Front 90

Demand Characteristics

Back 90

Extraneous cues that guide or bias a participant's behavior resulting in responses that are not valid, reliable reactions to our variables. Include: Reactivity, Hawthorne Effect, Social Desirability, and Experimenter Expectancies. (pg 90-91)

Front 91

Reactivity

Back 91

The bias in responses that occurs because participants are aware of being observed. (pg 90)

Front 92

Hawthorne Effect

Back 92

The influence on people's performance -- usually an improvement -- that occurs due to the novelty of being in a study. (pg 90)

Front 93

Social Desirability

Back 93

Refers to participant's responding in ways that they perceive to be socially acceptable. (pg 91)

Front 94

Experimenter Expectancies

Back 94

Cues the experimenter provides about the responses that subjects should give in a particular condition. (pg 91)

Front 95

_____, _____, ______, and _____ help to reduce Demand Characteristics.

Back 95

Single-blind procedures, Double-blind procedures, Habituation, and Experimental Realism....

Front 96

Single-blind Procedures

Back 96

Almost all experiments are at least of this type, meaning the participant does not know the condition he/she is in. (pg 92)

Front 97

Double-blind Procedures

Back 97

To control for experimenter expectancies, studies can be run this type of study, meaning both the participant and the person collecting the data do not know the condition the participant is in. (pg 92)

Front 98

Habituation

Back 98

When you familiarize participants with a procedure before beginning actual data collection. (pg 92)

Front 99

Experimental Realism

Back 99

The extent to which the measurement task engages participants. It guards against demand characteristics by making the experimental task engaging, so that the participant pays attention to the task, rather than to being observed. (pg 92)

Front 100

Unobtrusive Measures

Back 100

Measuring participants' behavior without their being aware of the measurement. (pg 93)

Front 101

Deception

Back 101

Avoids demand characteristics by using a "cover story" that disguises the study. (pg 93)

Front 102

Concealing the Experiment

Back 102

Occurs when a study is performed in the "waiting room" for the experiment, or in the field with the general public. (pg 94)

Front 103

Third Variable Problem

Back 103

Occurs when a correlation between two variables is dependent on another (third, mediating) variable.

Front 104

Observational Study Methods

Back 104

1) Naturalistic Observation

2) Systematic Naturalistic Observation

3) Participant Observation

(pg 109-110)

Front 105

Naturalistic Observation

Back 105

Involves observing a wide range of behaviors in an unstructured manner, usually with no specific hypothesis. (pg 109)

Front 106

Systematic Naturalistic Observation

Back 106

Similar to naturalistic observation, except that a particular behavior is targeted, and the observations are more systematic. (pg 110)

Front 107

Participant Observation

Back 107

Involves the researcher participating (usually covertly) in the behavior of a group while observing that behavior. (pg 110)

Front 108

Pros and Cons of Observational Research

Back 108

PROS

1) Good external validity

CONS

1) Highly susceptible to experimenter expectancies

2) Potentially unrepresentative sample

3) Verbal descriptions of behavior may lack reliability, precision, accuracy, and discriminability of behaviors. (pg 110)

Front 109

Archival Research

Back 109

Research where the source of the data is written records. (pg 112)

Front 110

Ex Post Facto Research

Back 110

A descriptive or experimental study is conducted after the events of interest have occurred. Ex post facto means "after the fact". (pg 112)

Front 111

Case Study Research

Back 111

An in-depth study of one situation of "case", most commonly the case is a person. (pg 112)

Front 112

Volunteer Bias

Back 112

The bias that arises from the particular people who participate in a study. (pg 114)

Front 113

What is Probability Sampling and what are the specific techniques?

Back 113

It relies on random sampling to select participants and includes:

1) Simple Random

2) Systematic Random

3) Stratified Random

4) Cluster

5) Two-state Random

pg 115-116

Front 114

Simple Random Sampling

Back 114

All members of the population have an equal chance of being selected and all samples have an equal chance of being selected. (pg 115)

Front 115

Systematic Random Sampling

Back 115

Every nth person is selected from a list of the population. (pg 115)

Front 116

Stratified Random Sampling

Back 116

Researchers randomly select from important subgroups so that their representation in the sample is proportional to their representation in the population. (pg 115)

Front 117

Cluster Sampling

Back 117

Where certain groups or "clusters" are randomly selected and then all members of each group are observed. (pg 116)

Front 118

Two-state Random Sampling

Back 118

When researchers choose participants through the cluster method and then the simple random method.

Front 119

What is Non-Probability Sampling and what are the specific techniques?

Back 119

This type of sampling does not rely on random sampling, therefore not every member of the population has an equal opportunity to be selected. Techniques include:

1) Convenience Sampling

2) Quota Sampling

3) Snowball Sampling

pg 116

Front 120

Convenience Sampling

Back 120

Participants are chosen from groups that are conveniently available (i.e. college students). (pg 116)

Front 121

Quota Sampling

Back 121

As in stratified sampling, we ensure that the sample has the same percentage, the same "quota", of each subgroup as in the population. Unlike stratified sampling, we do not randomly sample from each subgroup. Instead, convenience samples are used to fill each quota. (pg 116)

Front 122

Snowball Sampling

Back 122

We identify one participant, and from him/her we identify other potential participants, and from them we identify others, and so that sample tends to build or "snowball." (pg 116)

Front 123

Barnum Statements

Back 123

Questions that are so global and vague that everyone would agree with them or select the same response for them. (pg 121)

Front 124

Likert Scale

Back 124

Subjects circle the number that corresponds to their degree of endorsement. Applies to unidimensional scale questions.