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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Nonverbal communication
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the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position, and movement, the use of touch or gaze
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Social perception
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the study of how we form impressions of an make inferences about other people
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Encode
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to express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back
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Decode
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To figure out what someone else’s nonverbal behavior means, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness
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Differences between fear and disgust
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fear maximizes senses by opening the eyes, flare nostrils, open mouth, deep breath. Disgust minimizes the senses by squinting, crinkle the nose, press the lips, and shallow breath.
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Western cultures and the 6 major emotions
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they have more rigid boundaries (happy but not excited, disgusted but not angry), and are not allowed to show shame in public
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Eastern cultures and the 6 major emotions
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They overlap the emotions (happy and excited, disgusted and angry), and show shame publicly.
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What are the emotions other than the main 6 that are expressed cross-culturally?
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Pride, and shame
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Why is decoding difficult?
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Affect blends, difference in implications of facial expressions depending on the context, and the culture
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Affect blends
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facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
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Display rules
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culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
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Display Rules: America
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No emotional displays in men, but emotions allowed in women. No shame in public. Look someone in the eye. Give personal space.
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Display rules in Japan:
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Women can’t have a wide smile. Cover the smile. Cover up negative facial expressions with smiles/laughter. Display less expressions than westerners.
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Bad places for eye contact
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native American, Puerto Rico, Thailand, Japan
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High contact coultures
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middle east, south America, south eruope
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Low contact cultures
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north America, European, Asian, pakastani, native America
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Emblems
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nonverbal gestures that have well understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations such as the OK sign
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Paul Ekman and Walter Friesen traveled to New Guinea to study the meaning of various facial expressions in the primitive south Fore tribe. What major conclusion did they reach?
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Six major emotional expressions appear to be universal
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Which of the following is NOT one of the six major emotional expressions examined by Ekman and his colleagues in their influential cross cultural research on perception of emotions? Anger, Disgust, Embarrassment, or sadness
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embarrassment
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Darwin’s evolutionary perspective on nonverbal communication of emotion led him to predict that facial expressions were
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related to physiological reactions that proved to be a useful way to respond to a particular type of stimulus
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Tracy and Matsumoso’s 08 research on Olympic athletes indicated that the nonverbal expression of shame was
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asso w/ losing for many athletes but not those from highly individualistic cultures such as the United States
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Research on eye gaze and perception of facial expression indicates that which of the following tends to be most quickly decoded
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an angry face looking right at us
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What type of gaze is quickest to be decoded when it stares directly at you?
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Approach oriented emotion (anger)
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What type of gaze is quickest to be decoded when it has an averted gaze?
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Avoidance oriented emotions
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Thin slicing
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drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality or skills based on extremely brief sample of behavior.
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Asch )46_ Kevin Vs Keith
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the order of descriptions makes a huge difference. The first description provides a filter to which all other descriptions are filtered through. Demonstrates the primacy effect.
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Primacy Effect
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when it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influence how we view information
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Why do we think that being pretty means that we have good qualities?
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Primacy effect
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Belief perseverance
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the tendency to stick with an initial judgement even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider
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Research indicates that which of the following candidates would be most likely to win a political election? Deni, whose face indicates a warm personality; theo who many believe is gay; Vanessa who has large eyes, a high forehead, and a small child-like nose; or rudy whose face is usually seen as a cold, calculating and powerful personality
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Rudy
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In a political race between two people, does the kind looking person or the powerful looking person win?
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Powerful
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Aschs and colleagues were able to conclude that the thin-sliced impressions formed by their participants were based on meaningful information because
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their ratings of the silent video clips corresponded strongly with the ratings that the instructors received from their actual students at the end of the semester.
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Belief perseverance can help explain which of the following? Why people who watch news that refer to climate change as a hoax remain convinced of that conclusion even in the face of scientific evidence to the contrary; why during jury deliberations it is easier to convince fellow jurors to change their votes from guilty to not guilty than the other way around; why weather forecasters are better at predicting rainfall totals than snowfall totals; all of the above
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the first one. Hoax and climate change
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Which of the following statements regarding the carney power posing research is true? Standing in a closed posture w/ one arm’s wrapped around one’s own torso tends to be a high power pose; while participants who previously had posed in high power posture exhibited evidence of increased testosterone, their sef report responses indicated that they did not feel more powerful after the manipulation; participants who posed in a high power posture adopted riskier strategies on a subsequent gambling task; participants were less willing to adopt low power poses compared to high power poses
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riskier strategies on gambling
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Attribution theory
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description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.
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Father of attribution theory?
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Fritz Heider
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Happy satisfied marriages internal and external attribution:
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internal attributions for positive behaviors, external attributions for their partner’s negative behaviors
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Angry, dissatisfied marriages internal and external attribution:
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Internal attributions for negative behaviors, external attributions for positive behaviors.
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What kinds of covariation do we examine?
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Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
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Consensus info
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how other people behave toward the same stimuli
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Distinctiveness info
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info about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
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Consistency info
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info about the extent to which the behavior between the actor and one stimuli is the same across time and circumstance
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People are most likely to make internal attribution
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when the consensus and distinctiveness of the act are low but the consistency is high
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People are more likely to make an external attribution
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if consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency are all high
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People are more likely to make situational attribution when
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consistency is low and we cannot make a clear internal or external attribution.
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Covariation model assumes what?
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People are logical
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Covariation model is right except in what circumstances
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people rely on distinctiveness and consistency but don’t use consensus as much as predicted, and people don’t always have the needed information
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Perceptual salience
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seeming importance of info that is the focus of people’s attention
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When we try to explain someone’s behavior our focus of attention is on
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the person not the situation.
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When the perceptual salience of the suspect was low, the camera was pointed
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at the cop
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When the perceptual salience of the suspect was high, the camera was pointed
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at the suspect
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Two step attribution process
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analyzing another person’s behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution
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When are you more likely to make the fundamental attribution in sports?
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When you have less experience
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When are you more likely to engage in self serving attirbutions
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we fail and feel we can’t improve
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When are you more likely to attribute our current failure to internal causes and why
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when we feel we can improve. So that we get better.
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Victim blaming is because of
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belief in a just world
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Blind spot bias
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the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attribution biases in their thinking than we are
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Looking at fMRI, how does cultural thinking style impact mental effort?
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When they had to follow instructions opposite of their thinking style, they needed more brain power
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Masuda’s study of cross cultural perception of emotion
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eye tracking tech is used to demonstrate that American participants spend less time looking at the peripheral individuals surrounding the central figure than Japan participants.
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Rsearch using fMRI brain scanning tech indicates
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participants from both cultures domenstrate greater activation in higher order cortical regions when asked to perceive objects in a way that is unusual for them
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Miller’s cross cultural investigation of the attribution style in the US and india,
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few cultures differences emerged with young children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make internal attributions and Indians were more likely to make external
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Who among the following would you predict would be most likely to make an external attribution for any given behavior observed? US born adult; 8 year old born and raised in india; hong kong chinese college student who just shown images related to chinese culture; hong kong chinese college student who just been shown images of American culture
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Chinese shown chinese
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Whereas individuals in western cultures tend to thinkg more like ---- individuals in eastern cultures tend to think more like ----.
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Personality psych; social psychs
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Self recognition develops when
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around 18-24 months of age
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Self concept
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overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes (whether emotional or physical)
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Animals that have passed the mirror test
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dolphins, Asian elephant, magpies, but only great apes pass it regularly.
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What is viewed as central to self concept more than cognitive processes or desires?
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Morality
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Impression management
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the way we present ourselves to other people and get them to see us the way we want to be seen
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Intorspection
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the process whereby people look inward and examine their won thoughts, feelings, and motives
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If you can change your behavior to match your internal guidelines
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you will
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If you feel you can’t change your behavior to match your internal guidelines
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you will be confronted with disagreeable feedback about yourself.
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What will people do when facing a negative state of self awareness?
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Avoid looking at pictures of themselves, reckless damaging behavior, religious expression, spirituality.
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Causual theories
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theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors often we learn such theories from our cultures
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Reasons-generated attitude change
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attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize
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What is the problem with making important decisions right after analyzing reasons
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they may make a decision they regret because ppl tend to focus on things that are easy to put into words and ignore feelings that are hard to explain.
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Self perception theory
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theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs. Also how motivated we are to do something.
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Problem with positive reinforcement
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when treats stop coming, you may not enjoy the activity as much, especially if it was something you previously enjoyed doing.
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Intrinsic motiviation
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desire to engage in activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
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Extrinsic motivation
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the desire to engage in an activity b/c of external rewards or pressures, not b/c we enjoy the teask or find it interesting
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Overjustification effect
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the tendency for ppl to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by the intrinsic reasons
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When does intrinsic turn into extrinsic?
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When you give an intrinsic kid a reward for the work
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Task contingent reward
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rewards that are given for performing a task regardless of how well the task is done
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Performance contingent rewards
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rewards based on how well we perform a task
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How can performance contingent rewards backfire?
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Puts too much pressure on the kid.
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Fixed mindset
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the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
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Growth mindset
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the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
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Is it better for parents to tell their kid that they are the best in the world or that they can grow and they may not be there yet
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option 2
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Two factor theory of emotion
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the idea that emotional experience is the result of a 2 step self perception process in which ppl first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it.
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Misattribution of arousal
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the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
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How do people look for an explanation for arousal
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whatever is the most probable
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Best way of getting someone to think you’re attractive: When they’re relaxed or when they’re active/scared?
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Option 2
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Socially experienced chimps reacted to mirror experiment how
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they reacted to the mirror
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Socially isolated chimps reacted to mirror experiment how?
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They did not react to the mirror
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Social tuning
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the process whereby ppl adopt another person’s attitudes (you and max) when you want to get along with the person. It can happen immediately.
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Affective forecasts
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people’s predictions about how they will feel in response to a future emotional event
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Are you more likely to have an accurate prediction of how much you will enjoy a speed date by checking out a online profile or seeing if you’re friend liked them first?
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Option 2
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How does self control backfire?
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Thought suppression
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Depletion effect
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as the day goes on, you waste more energy in self control and you have less control.
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How can the depletion effect be curbed?
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Praying, surprisingly.
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How can self control be increased
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make specific “if-then” plans that specifcy how and when you will study and avoid temptations
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Terror management theory
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self esteem serves as a buffer protecting people from thoughts about death
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Narcissism
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combo of excessive self love and lack of empathy towards others
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Do optimists or realists do better?
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Optimists
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Object appraisal
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a method of looking at the properties of an attitude object in cognitively based attitudes
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Classical conditioning
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stimulus that elecits an emo response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that doesn’t until the neutral stimulus takes on the emo properties of the first stimulus
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Operant conditioning
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behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward of punishment.
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Explicity attitudes
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attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
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Implicit attitudes
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attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness
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Attitude accessibility
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strength of the assoc. between an attitude object and a person’s eval of that object measured by the speed at which ppl can report how they feel about the object
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Theory of planned behavior
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the idea that people’s intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors subjective norms and perceived behavioral control
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The more specific the attitude toward the behavior in question,
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the better that attitude can be expected to predict the behavior
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Subjective norms
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people’s beliefs about how other ppl they care about will view the behavior in question
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Perceived behavioral control
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the ease at which ppl believe they can perform the behavior.
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When attitudes change they do so in response to?
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Social influence
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Yale attitude change approach
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study of conditions under which ppl are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication and the nature of the audience
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The communication of yale approach looks at
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credibility, attractiveness, and length of message
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The message of the yale approach looks at
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If you don’t seem to be influencing ppl, they are easier to persuade, 2 sided communication, going first if there is no delay to get the message across faster
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The nature of audience of yale approach looks at
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attentive vs inattentive, high vs low intelligence/self esteem, and age
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If there is a delay in the message is it better to go first or second?
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Second
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If there is no delay in message is it better to go first or second?
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First
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Elcaboration likelihood model
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model explaining two ways in which persuwasive communication can cause attitude change; centrally when ppl are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments, and peripherally when ppl don’t
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2 variables that might influence ppl would agree with a speech
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strength of an argument and the peripheral cue—the prestige of the speaker
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if the message is easy to understand the ppl care more about
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the message
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if the message is hard to understand the ppl care more about
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the credentials
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heuristic systematic model of persuasion
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2 ways to persuasive communications can cuase attitude change: systematically processing the merits or using mental shortcuts or heuristics.
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Subliminal messages
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words or pictures that are not consciously perceived by may nevertheless influence judgements, att, and behaviors
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Attitude inoculation
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making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their postition
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reactance theory |
when peole feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior |
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Asch’s research on person perception provided evidence for which of the following conclusions? Primacy effect in social perception; first impressions serve as a filter through with subsequently learned info is interpreted; even when the content of info conveyed about 2 individuals remains the same, the order in which we learn it can have a powerful effect on our impression; all of the above |
all of the above |
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Speed at which we form initial impressions |
less than 1/10 of a sec |
