Public Speaking Final

Front 1

1.Define public speaking as an interactive process

Back 1

It is a transaction or exchange among people in public settings.

Front 2

2.Understand skyhook principle

Back 2

A moral frame tactic used to “…convince [your audience] that you have their best interests at heart.

To convince people with different values than mines you must find a higher value, a higher appeal that will transcend your differences.

Hint 2

My words: in order to be one with your crowd you must find a skyhook so that they can feel like you have their best interest at heart.

Front 3

3.The “imperative” of speech

Back 3

There are three imperatives of speech. The social imperative is the “…spoken connections between people…” consumer imperative allows one “…to be more sophisticated receivers of public talk”, and the intellectual imperative is “…the power to speak well.”

Front 4

4.Distinguish between ethics and ethos

Back 4

Ethos is “credibility or reputation”, and ethics are “…choices; that [are] the matter of ethos.”

Front 5

5.Understand the four “sounded word” principles

Back 5

(integrative, redundant, concrete, and situational).

Speeches integrates members of a society by identifying the values that people share

Speeches repeat self in more than one way

Speeches makes references to particular places help listeners visualize ideas.

Speeches occur in the here and now.”

Front 6

1.Know the differences among subject, specific purpose, general purpose, and central idea.

Back 6

Subject is “…[a] potential topic-that will interest your audience and meet your listeners’ expectations.” General Purpose is “…the primary reason you will speak in public.” Specific Purposes are “…the concrete goals you wish to achieve in a particular speech.” Central Idea is “…a thesis statement that captures, usually in a single sentence, the essence of the information or concept you wish to communicate to an audience.”

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2.Know the 6 ways to develop confident delivery.

Back 7

“1. Realize that tension and nervousness are normal.” “2. Focus on your ideas.” “3. Look at your listeners.” “4. Remember to breathe.” “5. Relax your body.” “6. Speak in public as often as you can.”

Front 8

1.Know the barriers to good listening.

Back 8

“1. Passive listening. 2. Drifting thoughts. 3. Physical distractions. 4. Trigger words. 5. Self-filling prophecies.”

Front 9

2.Know how listeners are deliberately misguided.

Back 9

“Misguiding techniques [Speakers] use percentages rather than absolute numbers, characteristics of the sample, and hasty generalization.”

Front 10

3.Know the differences among different listening purposes

Back 10

appreciative, discriminative, empathic, comprehensive and critical). “…kinds of listening that reflect the purposes you may have when communicating with others… Appreciative listening focuses on something other than the verbal content of the primary message… Discriminative listening requires listeners to draw conclusions from the way a message is presented rather than the message itself… Empathic listening is intended to provide emotional support for the speaker… [Comprehensive] occurs when you want to gain additional information or insights from the speaker… Critical listening [requires] you to both interpret and evaluate the message.”

Front 11

4.Know the questions for listening for comprehension.

Back 11

“1. What are the main ideas of the speech? 2. How are the main ideas arranged? 3. What kinds of materials support the main idea?”

Front 12

1.Define culture.

Back 12

“At its simplest, a culture is a social group’s system of meanings. We can think of culture as the meanings that we attach to persons, places, ideas, rituals, things, routines, and communication behavior.”

Front 13

2.Subcultures.

Back 13

“…smaller groups of people that define their lifestyles, at least in part, by how they’re different from the dominant culture, e.g., bikers or particular religious groups…”

Front 14

3.Define multiculturalism.

Back 14

“…the recognition that a country such as the United States possesses not a unified culture, but one with several subcultures and powerful co-cultures that interpenetrate yet are separate from one another – is a growing reality.”

Front 15

4.Know how speakers can negotiate difference and related definitions.

Back 15

“The key is addressing cultural difference or diversity while seeking understanding and cooperation.”

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5.Rhetorical frames.

Back 16

“Another good strategy to use when speaking to multicultural audiences is to create a rhetorical frame, that is, an orientation, that will be accepted by your listeners.”

Front 17

6.Value Orientations.

Back 17

“…their habitual ways of thinking about positive and negative grounds for human thought and action…”

Front 18

1.Apply audience demographic analysis (i.e., age, gender, education, group membership, cultural and ethnic background).

Back 18

“Demographic analysis is the study of observable characteristics in groups of people. In any audience, you will notice traits that group members share.”

Front 19

2.Apply hostile audience strategies.

Back 19

“…gain[ing] a positive response from people who disagree with you…1. Establish good will. Let them know you are concerned with issues or problems you’re discussing… 2. Start with areas of agreement. Develop some common ground… 3. Offer principles of judgment. 4. Develop positive credibility. 5. Use experts and supporting material to which your audience will respond. 6. Disarm your listeners with humor. 7. Use a multisided presentation.”

Front 20

3.Apply audience segmentation strategies

Back 20

“…divide your listeners into a series of subgroups or targeted populations.”

Front 21

4.Understand the concepts of audience beliefs, attitudes, and values.

Back 21

“[The] key concepts in discussing the psychology of listeners… Beliefs are convictions about what is true or false… Attitudes are tendencies to respond positively or negatively to people, objects, or ideas… Values are the basic concepts organizing one’s orientation to life.”

Front 22

5.Know how audience analysis helps develop speaking goals.

Back 22

“Demographic factors will help you understand your listeners’ familiarity with your topic, motivation to listen, reaction to your personally, and ability to understand your message. Your listeners’ beliefs, attitudes, and values provide clues to how they will perceive what you say. Audience analysis should help you set realistic communication goals.

Front 23

1.Understand the differences between primary and second sources.

Back 23

“…primary sources (eyewitness/firsthand accounts) and second sources (accounts based on other sources of information.”

Front 24

2.Know how to evaluate sources.

Back 24

“…specific instances to help establish a point”
3.Know the types of supporting materials. - “Examples take various forms-they can illustrate concepts, conditions, or circumstances; they can narrate events; or they can be listed as undeveloped specific instances… Statistics are numbers that show the relationships of phenomena-relationships that can emphasize size or magnitude, describe subclasses or parts (segments), or establish trends… When you cite the opinions or conclusions of others, you’re using testimony.”

Front 25

4.Know 5 functions of supporting materials.

Back 25

“1. Complex and abstract ideas benefit the use of specific information. 2. If your idea is controversial or members of your audience are hostile, use supporting material such as statistics as testimony 3. Supporting materials can enhance your credibility as a speaker. 4. Supporting materials provide audience member with ammunitions for later discussions. 5. Generally, examples create human interest, while statistics provide reasonable proof.”

Front 26

5.Define plagiarism.

Back 26

“…is defined as “the unacknowledged inclusion of someone’s else’s words, ideas or data as one’s own.”

Front 27

6.Know guidelines for choosing supporting materials.

Back 27

“Qualitative supporting material includes examples, anecdotes, and analogies. Quantitative supporting materials are statistical or numerical information. [Qualitative] worked much better over time.”

Front 28

7.Know the 4 tips for using statistics as support.

Back 28

“…you can help your listeners by “softening” the numbers… 1. Translate difficult-to-comprehend numbers into more understandable terms. 2. Round off complicated numbers. 3. Use visual materials to clarify statistics whenever possible. 4. Use statistics fairly."

Front 29

1.Understand organizational patterns for speeches.

Back 29

“There are four speech-centered patterns: Chronological patterns order ideas in a time sequence-you begin at one point in time and move forward or backward to some other time. Spatial patterns, the major points of the speech are organized by their position-their location to each other. Casual patterns of speech organization show a relationship between causes and effects. Topical pattern of organization, list categories of persons, places, things, or processes. There are 5 audience-centered patterns: Familiarity-acceptance order begins with what the audience knows or believes (the familiar) and moves on to new or challenging ideas (the unfamiliar). Inquiry order provides step-by-step explanation of how you acquired information or reached a conclusion. Question-answer order raises and answers listeners’ questions. Problem-situation order…you advocate changes in action or thought. Elimination order, you first survey all the available solutions and courses of action that can reasonably be pursued.

Front 30

2.Know memory and organizational skills.

Back 30

“…some specific outlining steps will help you and your listeners remember what you’re talking about: 1. The magic numbers (limit points between 2-5), 2. Chunking (divide the information into chunks) , 3. Mnemonics (help you remember ideas).”

Front 31

3.Distinguish between types of outlines.

Back 31

“A rough outline establishes the topic of your speech, clarifies your purpose, and identifies a reasonable number of subtopics. A speaking outline uses key words or phrases to jog your memory when you deliver a speech.”

Front 32

1.Know the factors of attention (activity, reality, vital, proximity, familiarity, novelty).

Back 32

“..to capture and hold the interest of your listeners. Choose active words to depict activity. Reality refers to specific events, people, and places. Vital, reflect[s] our tendency to be concerned with things that immediately benefit us. Proximity means “nearness”. References to the familiar are attention sustaining, and help listeners identify with you. Novel happenings, dramatic incidents, or unusual developments attract attention. Suspense is the appeal in mystery stories because we don’t know how they will end. [Conflict] brings a sense of urgency to the day’s events. Humor.

Front 33

2.Know the elements of an introduction.

Back 33

“Referring to the subject or Occasion, Using a Personal Reference or Greeting, Asking a Question, Making a Startling Statement, Using a Quotation, Telling a Humorous Story, Using an Illustration.”

Front 34

3.Know the elements of a conclusion.

Back 34

“An effective conclusion does three things: (1) It reinforces the message of the speech, letting listeners understand one more time the important and significance of what you’re saying; (2) it completes the emotional relationship you’ve constructed with your listeners; and (3) it creates a sense of completeness or closure.” (German et al., 2013, p. 135) “Issuing a challenge, Summarizing the major points or ideas, Using a Quotation, Using a Illustration, Supplying an Additional Inducement to Belief or Action, Stating a Personal Intention.”

Front 35

1.Understand the dimensions of nonverbal communication.

Back 35

“1. Speakers disclose their emotional states through their nonverbal behaviors. 2. The speaker’s nonverbal cues enrich the message that comes through words. 3. Nonverbal messages form a reciprocal interaction between speaker and listener.”

Front 36

2.Know the different methods of speech delivery (memorized, manuscript, impromptu, extemporaneous) and when they are appropriate.

Back 36

“Extemporaneous is prepared in advanced and practice. Impromptu is delivered on the spur of the moment, Manuscript is written before but read from teleprompter. Memorized does not feed off audience feedback.”

Front 37

3.Evaluate pacing, pauses, and rate in a speech.

Back 37

“Pacing, pausing, and rate during speech can interfere with intelligibility, refers to the ease with which a listener can understand what you’re saying. All are way to add emphasis to strengthen your main points”

Front 38

1.Know the qualities of clear oral style.

Back 38

“Three fundamental qualities will help you develop a clear and effective oral style: (1) accuracy, (2) simplicity, and (3) restatement.” Accuracy referring to the ability to choose precise words that best describes the experience. Simplicity referring to the choice to using clear words. Restatement referring to repetition in the form of rephrasing to reinforce ideas.

Front 39

2.Understand the principles of gender-neutral language use.

Back 39

“Gender-neutral words do no directly or indirectly denote males or females.” The four ways to avoid using sexist language are to speak in the plural, to say “he or she” when you must use a singular subject, to remove gender inflections, to use gender-specific pronouns for gender-specific processes, people, or activities.

Front 40

3.Know the types of imagery

Back 40

(visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory) “Imagery consists of sets of sensory impressions evoked in the imagination and memory through language.” 1.Visual “…describes optical stimuli, such as size, shape, color, and movement.” 2.Auditory “…creates impressions of sounds through description.” 3.Gustatory “…depicts sensations of taste.” 4.Olfactory “…helps your audience smell the odors connected with the situation you describe.”

Front 41

4.Know the types of definitions

Back 41

(etymological, contextual, exemplar, stipulative) An etymological definition “…is the derivation of a single word.” For example “The word ‘eulogy’ comes from the Greek ‘logia,’ meaning…” A contextual definition “…tells listeners how a word is used in specific situation.” An exemplar definition “…is one of the best ways to define a technical or unfamiliar term by example” with “only those examples that are familiar to your audience members.” A stipulative definition “…designates how a word will be used in a certain context.” For example “By rich I mean…”

Front 42

5.Recognize images, metaphors, and definitions.

Back 42

“…three of the most common language strategies: (1) definitions, (2) imagery, and (3) metaphor.” Definitions “…define unfamiliar or difficult concepts.” Imagery is used “…to intensify listeners’ experiences, [by appealing] to these senses.” A metaphor “…is the comparison of two dissimilar things.”

Front 43

1.Know the functions of visual aids.

Back 43

“Visual materials enhance your presentation in two ways: (1) They aid listener comprehension and memory, and (2) they add persuasive impact to your message.”

Front 44

2.Understand general strategies for selecting and using visual aids.

Back 44

“Your decision about which visual aids will work best for you should be based on three considerations: (1) the characteristics of the audience and occasion, (2) your ability to integrate verbal and visual materials effectively, and (3) the potential of computer-generated visual materials.”

Front 45

1.Know the functions of informative speaking.

Back 45

“Informative speeches take many forms, depending on the situation and the level of knowledge possessed by listeners.” An explanation “defines[s] concepts or processes in ways that make them relevant to listeners.” Lectures “…usually involve more extended explanations and definitions, also increase an audience’s understanding of a particular field of knowledge or activity.” Demonstrations “explain processes and illustrate them.” An oral report “…is a speech that arranges and interprets information gathered in response to a request made by a group.”

Front 46

2.Understand the essential qualities of informative speaking

Back 46

(clarity, associating new ideas with familiar ones, clustering, visualizations, motivation)] “There are five things you can do to ensure that your listeners remember what you say: (1) strive for clarity, (2) associate new ideas with familiar ones, (3) cluster ideas, (4) construct strong visualizations, and (5) provide motivational appeal.”

Front 47

3.Know the 7 tips for developing informative speeches.

Back 47

(1) “Create curiosity.” (2) “Adapt to what your listeners already know.” (3) “Use repetition.” (4) “Involve your listeners.” (5) Choose an appropriate organizational pattern.” (6) “Use multiple channels.” (7) “Suggest additional resources.”

Front 48

1.Know the types of claims (fact, value, policy).

Back 48

1. “A claim of fact asserts that something is or is not the case.” 2. “A claim of value-a claim about the intrinsic worth of the belief or action in question.” 3. “A claim of policy recommends a course of action that you want the audience to approve.”

Front 49

2.Know the types of reasoning

Back 49

(from examples, from generalization, from sign, from parallel cases, from cause). “Reasoning, or inference, is a process off connecting something that is known (evidence) to an idea (claim) that you wish others to accept. There are five generally accepted reasoning patterns: (1) from examples, (2) from generalization, (3) from sign, (4) from parallel case, and (5) from cause.

Front 50

1. Reasoning from example

Back 50

“often called inductive reasoning, [it] involves examining a series of examples of known occurrences (evidence) and drawing a general conclusion (claim).

Front 51

2. Reasoning from generalization

Back 51

“(sometimes called deduction) means applying a general truth to a specific situation.”

Front 52

3. Reasoning from sign

Back 52

“uses an obse4rvable mark or sign as proof for the existence of a state of affairs.”

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4. Reasoning from parallel case

Back 53

“involves thinking solely in terms of similar things and events.”

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5. Reasoning from cause

Back 54

“is an important vehicle for reaching conclusions.”

Front 55

3.Know the questions to test each kind of reasoning. Reasoning from examples -

Back 55

1. Have you looked at enough instances to warrant generalizing?
2. Are the instances fairly chosen?
3. Are there important exceptions to the generalization or claim that must be considered?

Front 56

3.Know the questions to test each kind of reasoning. Reasoning from generalization

Back 56

“1. Is the generalization true? 2. Deos the generalization apply to this particular case?”

Front 57

3.Know the questions to test each kind of reasoning. Reasoning from sign

Back 57

“1. Is the sign fallible? 2. Is the observation accurate?”

Front 58

3.Know the questions to test each kind of reasoning. Reasoning from parallel case

Back 58

1. Are there more similarities than differences between the two cases? 2.Are the similarities you have pointed out the relevant and important ones?

Front 59

3.Know the questions to test each kind of reasoning. Reasoning from cause

Back 59

“1. Can you separate causes and effects? 2. Are the causes strong enough to have produced the effect? 3. Did intervening events or persons prevent a cause from having its normal effect? 4. Could any other cause have produced the effect?”

Front 60

4.Recognize fallacies.

Back 60

A fallacy “is a flaw in the rational properties of an argument or inference.” 1.Hasty generalization “is a claim made on the basis of too little evidence.” 2.Genetic fallacy “occurs when someone assumes that the only true understanding of some idea, practice, or event is to be found in its origins.” 3. Appeal to ignorance “by arguing with double negatives.” 4. Bandwagon fallacy “is to appeal to popular opinion or urge people to jump on the bandwagon.” 5. Sequential fallacy “arises from the assumption that if one event follows another, the first event must have caused the second.” 6. Begging the question “[is] rephrasing an idea and then offering it as its own reason [also known as] circular thought.” 7. Appeal to authority “[is] when someone who is popular but not an expert urges the acceptance of an idea or a product.” 8. Name-calling “[is] the general label for attacks on people instead of on their arguments.”

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2.Define motive cluster

Back 61

“A motive cluster is a group of individual appeals that are grounded in the same fundamental human motivation… [The] three motive clusters affiliation, achievement, and power – as well as some motivational appeals within each cluster.” Since there are so many motivational appeals they have been sorted into groups, divided by something they have in common. Affiliation motives are dominated by a desire to be well liked and accepted. “Achievement motives are focused on individual urges, desires and goals” and Power motives focus on the influence over others.

Front 62

3.Recognize examples of motive clusters - (affiliation, achievement, and power): Affiliation motives consist of various motivational appeals like: 1. Companionship: “a friend in need is a friend indeed”, 2. Conformity: “To get along, you need to go along”, 3. Deference/Dependence: “You can be made to feel dependent on either majority rule”, 4. Sympathy/Generosity: “You could be the parent this child has never known..”, 5. Loyalty, 6. Tradition: “Our rituals and ceremonies mark and define us as a people”, 7. Reverence/Worship, and 8. Sexual attraction. Achievement motives consist of various motivational appeals like 1. Acquisiton/Saving: “Earn good money now in our new checking…” 2. Success/Display: “27 and Million”, 3. Prestige: “prestige appeal implies special qualities, either of the brand name … or on individual characteristics.” 4. Pride: “pride can center on the collective… or on individual characteristics”, 5. Adventure/Change: “Navy: accelerate your life”, 6. Perseverance: “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again”, 7. Creativity: “Dare to be different”, 8. Curiosity: “Want to know who wins…” 9: Personal enjoyment: “Let the good times roll!” Power motives are easily related to affiliation motives, and consist of various motivational appeals like: 1. Aggression: “We must fight for our right”, 2. Authority/Dominance: “As commander-in-chief, I…”, 3. Defense: “we fight not for our own glory and prestige, but to protect ourselves from ruthless enemies”, 4. Fear: “Friends don’t let friends drive drunk”, 5. Autonomy/Independence: “Just do it”. Theses clusters are not set in stone or all-inclusive. (German et al., 2013, p. 216-218)
4. Know the steps and order of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence: “The motivated sequence provides an ideal blueprint for urging an audience to take action.” It has five basic steps: 1. Attention 2. Need 3. Satisfaction 4. Visualization and 5. Action. First, you have to get your audience’s attention. Secondly, you must describe the problem and show them that there is a need. Third, you present the solution of how to satisfy that need. Next, you visualize the results by depicting the world like the plan is in action or not. Last but not least, you requesting your audience’s action or approval. (German et al., 2013, p. 223)

Back 62

(affiliation, achievement, and power): Affiliation motives consist of various motivational appeals like: 1. Companionship: “a friend in need is a friend indeed”, 2. Conformity: “To get along, you need to go along”, 3. Deference/Dependence: “You can be made to feel dependent on either majority rule”, 4. Sympathy/Generosity: “You could be the parent this child has never known..”, 5. Loyalty, 6. Tradition: “Our rituals and ceremonies mark and define us as a people”, 7. Reverence/Worship, and 8. Sexual attraction.

Front 63

1.Know the elements of speaker credibility

Back 63

1. The more credibility you have, the more persuasive you can be. 2. When you display knowledge about your topic, your listeners are more than likely to trust you. 3. When you know what you’re talking about, have the peoples best interest in mind “and are excited about your own proposal,” people will more than likely follow.

Front 64

3.Recognize examples of motive clusters - Achievement motives

Back 64

Achievement motives consist of various motivational appeals like 1. Acquisiton/Saving: “Earn good money now in our new checking…” 2. Success/Display: “27 and Million”, 3. Prestige: “prestige appeal implies special qualities, either of the brand name … or on individual characteristics.” 4. Pride: “pride can center on the collective… or on individual characteristics”, 5. Adventure/Change: “Navy: accelerate your life”, 6. Perseverance: “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again”, 7. Creativity: “Dare to be different”, 8. Curiosity: “Want to know who wins…” 9: Personal enjoyment: “Let the good times roll!”