Psychology Review For Test #2

Front 1

Authoritarian

Back 1

parents impose rules and expect obedience (too hard/"because I said so")

Front 2

Permissive

Back 2

submit to children's desires, make few demands, and enforce little punishment (too soft)

Front 3

Authoritative

Back 3

both demanding and responsive, set rules but explain reasons and encourage open discussion (just right)

Front 4

Pupil

Back 4

adjustable opening in the center of the eye

Front 5

Iris

Back 5

the colored portion of the eye which is a ring of muscle that controls the size of the pupil

Front 6

Lens

Back 6

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Front 7

Retina

Back 7

light-sensitve inner surface of the eye; contains the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Front 8

Perception

Back 8

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Front 9

Sensation

Back 9

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Front 10

Unconditional Response (UR)

Back 10

in classical conditioning the naturally occurring response to the unconditional stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

Front 11

Unconditional Stimulus (US)

Back 11

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response

Front 12

Conditioned Response (CR)

Back 12

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Front 13

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Back 13

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

Front 14

Shaping

Back 14

a conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions toward a desired behavior

Front 15

Modeling

Back 15

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Front 16

Spontaneous Recovery

Back 16

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Front 17

Gestalt

Back 17

an organized whole (our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes)

Front 18

Figure Ground

Back 18

the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Front 19

Binocular Cues

Back 19

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes (such as retinal disparity)

Front 20

Monocular Cues

Back 20

depth cues available to either eye alone (such as interposition and linear perspective)

Front 21

Depth Perception

Back 21

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Front 22

Schema

Back 22

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Front 23

Extinction

Back 23

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Front 24

Positive Reinforcement

Back 24

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli (any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response)

Front 25

Negative Reinforcement

Back 25

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens that response) NOT A PUNISHMENT

Front 26

Secondary Reinforcer

Back 26

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Front 27

Intrinsic Motivation

Back 27

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Front 28

Extrinsic Motivation

Back 28

a desire to perform a behavior to receive a promised reward or avoid threatened punishment

Front 29

Retinal Disparity

Back 29

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes (the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object)

Front 30

Fixed-ratio Schedule

Back 30

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Front 31

Variable-ratio Schedule

Back 31

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Front 32

Fixed-interval Schedule

Back 32

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Front 33

Variable-interval Schedule

Back 33

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Front 34

Zygote

Back 34

the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Front 35

Embryo

Back 35

the developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month

Front 36

Fetus

Back 36

the developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth

Front 37

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Back 37

a scientist who studied the "forgetting curve"; after learning lists of nonsense syllables, he studied how much he retained and found that memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out

Front 38

Sensory Memory

Back 38

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Front 39

Short-term Memory

Back 39

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten (like remembering a phone number just until you dial it)

Front 40

Long-term Memory

Back 40

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (includes knowledge, skills, and experiences)

Front 41

Critical Period

Back 41

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Front 42

Conservation

Back 42

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in forms of objects (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning)

Front 43

Effortful Processing

Back 43

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Front 44

Automatic Processing

Back 44

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, an frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Front 45

Teratogens

Back 45

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Front 46

Priming

Back 46

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Front 47

Punishment

Back 47

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Front 48

Sensorimotor Stage

Back 48

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about two years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Front 49

Pre-operational Stage

Back 49

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 years of age) during which as child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Front 50

Concrete Operational Stage

Back 50

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Front 51

Formal Operational Stage

Back 51

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Front 52

Infantile Amnesia

Back 52

the implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing of our first three years

Front 53

Priming

Back 53

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Front 54

Déja vu

Back 54

that eerie sense that you have experienced something before; cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Front 55

Mood-congruent Memory

Back 55

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Front 56

Absent-mindedness

Back 56

inattention to details leads to encoding failure

Front 57

Transience

Back 57

storage decay over time

Front 58

Blocking

Back 58

inaccessibility of stored information

Front 59

Misattribution

Back 59

confusing the source of information

Front 60

Suggestibility

Back 60

the lingering effects of misinformation

Front 61

Bias

Back 61

belief-colored recollections

Front 62

Persistence

Back 62

unwanted memories

Front 63

Skinner Box

Back 63

inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device records the animal's accumulated responses

Front 64

Operant Chamber

Back 64

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking