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398 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is a neuron?
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Cell responsible for sending/receiving messages through out the body.
They fire and receive input from a group of neurons and transmit information to another group via "networks" |
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What is a cell body? (Soma)
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part of neuron that contains nucleus that houses cells genetic material
Genes synthesize proteins that form chemicals/structure that allow a nerve to function |
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What are dendrites?
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small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit messages toward the rest of the cell
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What is the axon hillock?
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the base of the cell body which will initiate the chemical reaction that will flow down the rest of the neuron if it receives enough stimulation
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What does the axon do?
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transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron
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What is the end of the axon called? What do they look like?
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Axon terminal
bulb-like extensions filled with vesicles |
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What is a neurotransmitter?
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the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other
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Where do sensory neurons receive information from? Where do they send the info?
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bodily senses
Send the information to the brain |
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What do sensory neurons cause?
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touch/pain sensations of the skin
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What do motor neurons do?
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Carry messages away from the brain/spinal cord and towards the muscles (flexion/extension control)
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What are glial cells?
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specialized cells of nervous system involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste and synchronizing the activity of billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system
Outweigh neurons in brain 10:1 |
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What is myelin?
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fatty sheath which insulates the axons from one another resulting in speed increase and efficiency of neural communication (150m/s)
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What were to happen if the myelin was damaged? What about a small group of axons?
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efficiency decrease ex. Multiple Sclerosis
impairments in functioning of large networks of brain areas |
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What is neurogenisis?
How is this performed? |
the formation of new neurons
Stern cells divide and form different structures based of of the chemical environment |
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What is neural activity based on?
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changes in concentrations of charged ions
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What is the charge outside of the neuron? Why?
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Positive charge due to Na+ and K+
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What is the charge inside of the neuron? Why?
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Negative charge due to chloride ions
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What is the resting potential?
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relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages
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What does the electrostatic gradient cause?
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the inside and outside of the cell to have different charges (+/-)
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What does the concentration gradient cause?
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different types of ions to be more densely packed on one side of the membrane than the other
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What is the action potential?
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a wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down it's length
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What charge occurs after the action potential?
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-70mV to 35mV
Negative to positive |
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What is an ion channel?
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small "pore" that opens in the neuron cell membrane to allow positively charged sodium ions to rush into the cell, stimulating the neuron
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What occurs once the action potential concludes?
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the ion channels close and sodium ions are rapidly pumped back out of the cell to achieve resting potential once again
(HYPERPOLORIZATION) |
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What is the refractory period?
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The brief period of time (2-3ms) in which a neuron can't fire
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What is a synapse?
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the microscopically small spaces that seperate individual nerve cells
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What is the difference between a pre synaptic cell and a post synaptic cell?
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pre synaptic cells release chemicals where post synaptic cells receive input
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What is the All-or-None Principle?
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individual nerve cells fires at the same strength every time an action potential occurs
The strength of the sensation is based on the rate of the nerve cells firing and the number of cells stimulated |
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What does it mean for a receptor to be excitatory?
What does this cause? |
the actions of the neurotransmitter caused the neuron membrane potential to decrease
(-70mV to -68mV) Causes an increased probability of action potential |
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What does it mean for a receptor to be inhibitory?
What does this cause? |
the actions of the neurotransmitter caused the neuron membrane potential to increase
(-70mV to -72mV) Causes a decreased probability of action potential |
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What is the Lock & Key analogy?
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Each neurotransmitter typically has its own unique molecular shape
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What is the synaptic cleft?
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the minute space between axon terminal (terminal button) and the dendrite
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What does it mean for a neurotransmitter to "reuptake"?
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neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapses are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the pre synaptic neuron
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What is glutamate?
What happens if there is abnormal functioning? |
the most common neurotransmitter in the brain with the ability to form new memories, excite the nervous system and causes autonomic system reactions
Disorders: seizures and strokes |
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What is GABA?
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the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter which prevents neurons from generating action potentials by reducing negative charges of neighbouring neurons (inhibits brain activity)
Lowers arousal, anxiety and excitation, easier to sleep |
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What is acetyl-choline?
What is a disorder that can occur with abnormal functioning? |
junction between nerve cells and skeletal muscles
responsible for movement and attention Disorder: Alzheimer's |
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What is dopamine?
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a mono-amine neurotransmitter involved in mood, control of voluntary movement and processing rewarding experiences
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What is norepinephrine?
Where is it formed? |
mono-amine synthesized from dopamine molecules involved in regulating stress responses, increasing arousal, attention and heart rate
Formed in the brain stem and projects through the cortex (FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE) |
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What is serotonin?
It has a big role in what? |
a mono-amine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression and appetite
Big role in depression and perception of pain |
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What is an agonist?
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drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter's action by stimulating the receptor sites for that neurotransmitter
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What do direct agonists do?
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physically bind to the neurotransmitter's receptors at the post synaptic cells
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What do indirect agonists do?
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facilitate the effects of a neurotransmitter but does not physically bind to the same part of the receptor as the neurotransmitter
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What does a antagonist do?
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inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of a neurotransmitter
ex. botox injections |
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What is a hormone?
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chemicals secreted into the blood stream by the glands of the endocrine system which help homoeostasis of the body
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What is homoeostasis?
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the balance of energy, metabolism, body temperature and other basic functions that keep the body working properly
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What is the hypothalamus?
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a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems
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What is the pituitary gland?
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the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to other glands of the endocrine system
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What are the adrenal glands?
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a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine
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What are endorphins?
What feelings does it produce? |
a hormone produced by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus functioning to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure
Gives feelings of euphoria, pleasure reward and inhibits feelings of pain |
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What does testosterone do?
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drive physical and sexual development over the long term and increases sexual activity and the response to threat
Correlation with aggression |
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What does the central nervous system consist of?
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the brain and spinal cord
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What does the spinal cord do?
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receives information from the brain and produces movements as well as sends sensory information back to the brain
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What is the central nervous system responsible for?
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personality, preferences , memories and concious awareness
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What is the peripheral nervous system?
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division of the nervous system that transmits signals between the rest of the body
Divided into the ANS and SNS |
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What does the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) consist of?
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nerves that control skeletal muscle which control voluntary and reflexive movement as well as sensory input from the body
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What does the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) do? What does it contain?
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regulate the activity of organs and glands
contains the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system |
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What is the sympathetic nervous system?
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"Fight or Flight" response which causes an increase in heart rate, dilates pupils and decreases salivary flow preparing the body for action
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What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
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helps maintain the homoeostatic balance in the presence of change, it also helps the body to return to a non-emergency state
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What is the brain stem?
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Part of the hind bran.
Bottom of the brain and consists of the medulla and pons |
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What is the function of the medulla?
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sending signals unconsciously for breathing, heart rate, salivating vomitting and sneezing
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What does the pons contribute to?
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wakefulness, dreaming, control of balance, eye movements and swallowing
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What is is the reticular foreman?
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a structure extending from the medulla upwards to the mid brain which influences attention, alertness, walking and posture
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What is the cerebellum?
What would happen if it were to be damaged? |
a lobe like structure at the base of the brain involved in monitoring of movement, maintaining balance, attention and emotional responses If damaged, it would cause jerky movements which interferes with walking and posture, personality changes and impulsivity |
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What is the midbrain?
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structures residing just above the hindbrain which is the relay station between the sensory and motor areas
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What is the superior collicus and the inferior collcus responsible for?
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visual attention
auditory attention |
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What is the forebrain?
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the most visibly obvious region of the brain above the midbrain. All of the folds and grooves on the outer surface of the brain, critical to complex processes as emotion, memory, thinking and reasoning.
Contains the ventricles filled with cerebral spinal fluid |
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What do the ventricles do?
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eliminate wastes and provides nutrition and hormones to the brain and spinal cord as well as cushions the brain from the impact against the skull
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What is the basal ganglia?
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a group of 3 structures which facilitate planned movements, skill learning and integrating sensory and movement information with the brains reward system. It also promotes and inhibits movements and allows us to have different muscles work together
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What is the limbic system?
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an integrated network involved with emotion and memory
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What is the amygdala?
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a key structure in the limbic system which facilitate memory formation for emotional events, mediates dear responses and plays a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli (facial expressions)
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What is the hippo-campus critical for?
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learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories
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What is the thalamus?
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a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain
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What is the hypothalamus
responsible for? |
the regulation of hunger/thirst to maintain body temperature. Also drives for aggression and sex (trigger for orgasms)
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What is the cerebral cortex?
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the convoulted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain involved in multiple higher functions such as thought, language and personality
The wrinkled surface increases the area for more cells causing more neurons which results in a greater cognitive complexity |
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What does the cerebral cortex consist of?
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cell bodies, dendrites of neurons as well as white and grey matter
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What are the four lobes?
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occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal lobes which are all interconnected
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What is the occipital lobe?
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located at the rear of the brain and is where visual information is processed
the occipital loved receives this information from the thalamus and projects it onto the temporal and parietal lobes |
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What is the parietal lobe?
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the anterior edge of the somato-sensory cortex which is involved in our experiences of touch as well as bodily awareness
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What is the somato-sensory cortex?
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a band of densely packed nerve cells that register touch sensations
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What is the temporal lobe?
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it is located at the sides of the brain near the ears and is involved with hearing, language and some higher-level aspects of vision such as object and face recognition
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What is the frontal lobe important for?
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numerous higher cognitive functions such as planning, regulating impulses/emotions , language production and voluntary movement and also allows you to reflect on thought processes
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What is the corpus callosum?
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a collection of neural fibres connection the two hempispheres, a thick band of fibres allowing the right and left hemispheres to talk with each other and work together to produce some of our behaviours
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What is hemispheric specialization?
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the idea that each side of the brain has different functions
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What is the right hemisphere important for?
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cognitive task that involve visual and spatial skills, recognition of visual stimuli and musical processing
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What is the left hemisphere important for?
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language and math
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What is a split-brain patient?
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a person with a severed corpus callosum leaving them with 2 separate cerebral hemispheres usually performed for epileptics
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What is neural plasticity?
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the capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experiences
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What is sensation?
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the process of detecting external events by sense organs and turning those stimuli into neural signals
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What is perception?
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the process of following sensation which involves attending to, organizing and interpreting the stimuli we sense
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What is transduction?
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the process through which specialized receptors transform the physical energy of the outside world into neural impulses
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What is the doctrine of specific nerve energies?
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the idea that different senses are separated in the brain
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What is the orienting response?
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how we quickly shift our attention to stimuli that signal a change in our sensory world
we pay less attention to stimuli that stay the same over an extended period of time |
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What is sensory adaptation?
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a reduction of activity in sensory receptors with repeated exposure to a stimuli
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What is the absolute threshold?
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minimum amount of energy or quantity of a stimulus required to be reliably detected at least 50% of the time
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What is the difference threshold?
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the smallest difference between stimuli that can be reliably detected at least 50% of the time
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What does the signal detection theory state?
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that whether a stimulus is perceived depends on both sensory experience and judgement made by the subject
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What is subliminal perception?
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perception that occurs below the threshold of concious awareness
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What is psychophysics?
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a field of study that explores how physical energy (light/sound) and their intensity relate to psychological experience
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What is Gestalt Psychology?
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an approach to perception that emphasizes that the whole is greater than the sum
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What is the figure-ground principle?
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when an object or figure in our environment tends to stand out against a background
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What is proximity?
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the tendency to view objects that are close to each other as a group
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What is similarity?
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the tendency to view objects that are visually similar as one group
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What is continuity?
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the perceptual rule that lines and other objects tend to be continuous rather than abruptly change direction
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What is closure?
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the tendency to fill in gaps to complete a whole object
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What is phonetic reversal?
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a word played backwards making it sound like another word
backwards messages controversy in music |
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When does top-down processing occur?
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when our perceptions are influenced by our expectations or by our prior knowledge
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When does bottom-up processing occur?
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when we perceive individual bits of sensory information and use them to construct a more complex perception
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What is a perceptual set?
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a filter that influences what aspects of a scene we perceive/pay attention to
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What is divided attention?
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paying attention to 1 or more stimulus/task at the same time
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What is selective attention?
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focusing on one particular event/task
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What is unintentional blindness?
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the failure to notice clearly visible events or objects because attention is directed elsewhere
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What is hypnosis?
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a procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility NOT a trance
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Hypnosis is based off of the interaction of what two things?
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1) Autonomic (unconscious) thoughts/behaviours
2) Supervisory system |
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What are ideomotor suggestions related to?
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specific actions that could be performed (adopting a certain position)
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What are challenge suggestions indicating?
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actions that are not to be performed so that the subject appears to lose the ability to perform the action
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What are cognitive-perceptual suggestions
involving? |
subjects remembering or forgetting specific information or experiencing altered perceptions such as reduced pain sensations
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What is the Dissociation Theory of hypnosis?
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hypnosis = a unique state in which conciousness is divided into 2 parts: observer and hidden observer
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What is the Social-Cognitive Theory to hypnosis?
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hypnosis = an emphasis on degree to which beliefs/expectations contribute to increased suggestibility where response-expectancy plays a big role
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What is meditation?
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any procedure that involves a shift in conciousness to a state in which the individual is highly focused, aware and in control of mental processes
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What is focuses attention (FA) meditation?
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meditation when an individual focuses attention on a chosen object
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What is open monitoring (OM) meditation?
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meditation that focuses on moment to moment sensations
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What is deja vu?
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the distinct feeling of having seen or experienced a situation that is impossible or unlikely to have previously occurred
Could be due to perception, familiarity and recognition or temporal lobe epilepsy |
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What is the lowest level of conciousness? What does it consist of?
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brain death - conditions in which the brain, specifically including brain stem, no longer function
No hope of recovery |
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What is a coma?
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a state marked by complete loss of conciousness usually caused by damage to the brain stem and widespread damage to both hemispheres of the brain
a lack of wakefulness and awareness, where those who survive typically recover to higher cognitive levels of conciousness in 2-4 weeks |
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What is the persistent vegetative
state? |
a state of minimal to no conciousness in which a patients eyes may be open and the individual may develop sleep-wake cycles without clear signs of conciousness
chance of recovery in first few months but after 3 months they will be in a permanent vegetative state |
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What is the minimally-concious state (MCS)?
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a disorded state of conciousness marked by the ability to show some behaviours that suggest at least parietal conciousness, even if on an inconsistent basis
must show some awareness of self and surroundings |
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What is the locked-in syndrome?
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a disorder in which patient is awake but because of their inability to move their body, they appear unconscious
usually a result of damage to the pons causing paralysis |
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The effects of drugs involve....
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biological, psychological and social mechanisms
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What is tolerance?
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when repeated use of a drug results in a need for a higher does to get the intended effect
the setting that the drug is taken in as well as the expectations of the drug can have a large impact on the person's response to the drug |
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What is down-regulation in terms of drugs?
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when receptors are over worked and separate to slow their firing rates
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What is physical dependence?
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the need to take a drug to ward off unpleasant physical withdrawal symptoms
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What is psychological dependence?
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an addiction to a drug developed without any physical symptoms of withdrawal
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What are psychoactive drugs?
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substances that affect thinking, behaviour, perception and emotion
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What are stimulants?
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substances that speed up the nervous system and enhance wakefulness and alertness
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What are hallucinogenic drugs?
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substances that produce perceptual distortions which are visual, auditory or tactile
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what is marijuana?
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a substance comprising of leaves and buds of a plant that produces a combination of hallucinogenic, stimulant and relaxing (narcotic) effects
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What are opiates?
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substances used reduce pain and induce extremely intense feelings of euphoria by binding with endorphine receptors
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What are sedatives?
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substances that depress the activity of the nervous system
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What is alcohol?
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a substance that targets GABA receptors as well as opiate and dopamine receptors
reduces the activity of the central nervous system causing impairments in balance and coordination while inhibiting behaviour and impulses |
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What is learning?
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the process by which behaviour and knowledge changes as a result of experience
cognitive v.s associative |
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What is classical conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)?
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where learning occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus
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What is a unconditioned stimulus (US)?
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a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning
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What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
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a once neutral stimulus the later elicits a conditioned response because it has history of being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
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What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
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a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
ex. flinching, blinking |
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What is a conditioned response (CR)?
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a learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus
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What is the Hebb rule?
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if a weak connection between neurons is stimulated at the same time as a strong connection it causes the weak connection to be strengthened
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What is acquisition?
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the initial phase of learning where a response is established according to the predictability with which the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus
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What is extinction?
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the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together
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What is spontaneous recovery?
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the re-occurance of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction
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What is stimulus generalization?
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the process in which the response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to a different (but similar) stimuli
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When does discrimination occur?
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when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to a new stimulus that may be similar to the original stimulus
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What does the conditioned emotional response consist of?
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emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation
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What is meant by preparedness?
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biological prepositions to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli
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What are conditioned taste aversions?
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acquired dislike/disgust of food and drink because it is paired with illness
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When does latent inhibition occur?
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when frequent experience to a stimulus before is paired with an unconditioned stimulus it makes it less likely for conditioning to occur after a single episode of illness
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What is evaluative conditioning?
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pairing a stimulus with either a positive or negative stimuli causing repeated association of the stimulus with the emotion leading to the development of a positive or negative feeling toward that stimulus
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What is operant conditioning?
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a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences
involves voluntary actions |
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What is reinforcement?
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the process when an event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of the response occurring again
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What is The Law of Effect?
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responses followed by satisfaction which will occur again and those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely to occur again
satisfaction refers to "animals goals being achieved" or if it has received some form of reward for the behaviour |
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What is a reinforcer?
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the stimulus that is contingent upon a response and increases the probability of that response occurring again
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What is punishment?
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a process that decreases the future probability of a response
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What is a punisher?
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a stimulus that is contingent upon a response and that results in a decrease in behaviour
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What is the operant chamber?
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a standard laboratory apparatus for studying operant conditioning
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What is positive reinforcement
or punishment? |
a stimulus that is ADDED to a situation
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What is negative reinforcement or punishment?
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a stimulus that is REMOVED from a situation
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What do positive reinforcements do?
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strengthen behaviour after potential reinforcers such a money, praise or nourishment follow that behaviour
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What do negative reinforcements do?
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strengthen a behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus
ex. studying because it prevents parents from nagging |
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What is avoidance learning?
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a type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur
ex. taking detour to avoid traffic |
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What is escape learning?
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when a response removes a stimulus that is already present
ex. covering ears after hearing loud music |
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What is a primary reinforcer?
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reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs - needs that affect an individual's ability to survive and maybe even reproduce
ex. food, water, shelter, sexual contact |
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What is a secondary reinforcer?
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a stimuli that acquires their reinforcing effects only after we learn their value
ex. money and praise |
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When does the nucleus accumbens become activated?
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during the processing of rewards including primary ones including eating and having sex
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What is a discriminative stimulus?
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a cue or event that indicates that a responses, if made, will be reinforced
ex. asking your parents for the car when they're in a good mood |
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What is shaping?
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a procedure where a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximation of that repsonse in a step by step fashion
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What is chaining?
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a similar process to shaping involving 2 or more shaping behaviours linking together into a more complex action or series of actions
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What is continuous reinforcement?
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every response made results in reinforcement
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What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement?
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only a certain number of responses are rewarded or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available
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What is ratio?
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a reinforcement based on the amount of responding
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What is interval?
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the amount of time between reinforcements
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What is fixed?
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a schedule where reinforcement remains the same
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What is variable?
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variables vary from reinforcement to reinforcement
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What is the fixed-ratio schedule?
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a reinforcement delivered after a certain number of responses have been completed
ex. factory workers salaries based on # of products worked on in the day |
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What is the variable-ratio schedule?
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the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to average
ex. slot machines |
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What is the fixed-interval schedule?
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reinforces first response occurring after a certain amount of time passes
ex. teacher gives exam every 3 weeks |
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What is the variable-interval schedule?
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first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time
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What is the partial reinforcement effect?
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a phenomenon where organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer
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What does the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) Theory Learning suggest?
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the individual is actively processing and analysing information which influences our observable behaviours as well as our internal mental lives
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What is observational learning?
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changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others
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What is imitation?
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recreating someone else's motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal
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What is the "Bobo Doll" experiment?
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children who watched adults attack the doll did likewise when given the opportunity
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What is episodic memory?
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the memory of specific experiences
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What is memory?
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a collection of several systems that store information in different forms for different amounts of time
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What are control processes?
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the shift in information from on memory store to another
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What are the 3 memory stores?
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sensory memory, short-term (ST) memory and long-term (LT) memory
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What does attention do?
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selects what information goes through encoding
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What is encoding?
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the process of sorting information in to long-term memory
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What does retrieval do?
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bring information from long term memory back to short term memory
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What is sensory memory?
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a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for very brief amounts of time
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What is iconic memory?
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the visual form of sensory memory that is held for 1/2 to 1s
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What is echoic memory?
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the auditory form of sensory memory that is held for 5s
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What is short-term memory (STM)?
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a memory store with limited capacity and duration (less than 1 minute)
summed up by the magical number: 7 +/- 2 |
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What is the Magical Number?
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7 +/- 2
people are able to remember 7 units of information "give or take a couple" |
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What is chunking?
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organizing smaller units of information into larger, more meaningful units
ex. phone #s |
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What is long-term memory (LTM)?
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a memory store which holds information for an extended period of time, if not permanetly
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What is the tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon?
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when someone is able to retrieve similar words or words that start with the same letter but not the actual word they want
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What is the serial position effect of memory?
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most people recall the first few items from a list and the last few items, but only an item or two from the middle
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What is the primary effect of memory?
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the first few items from a list are relatively easy to remember because they began to enter the LTM
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What is the recency effect of memory?
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the last few items relatively easy to remember because they began to enter the STM
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What is proactive interference?
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a process in which the first information learning occupies the memory, leaving fewer resources left to remember the newer information
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What is retroactive interference?
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the most recently learned information overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into LTM
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What is rehearsal?
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repeating information until you do not need to remember it any more
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What is working memory?
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a model of short term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time
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What is the phonological loop of working memory?
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the storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and that stores information as sounds or an auditory code utilizing areas of the brains that specialize in speech and hearing
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What is the word-length effect?
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the ability to remember more one syllable words than for or five syllable words in a short-term memory task
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What is the visuospatial sketchpad of working memory?
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the storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code based on shapes, colours and textures
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What is feature binding?
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combining visual features into a single unit
the mind can track 3-4 images at a time |
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What is the episode buffer of working memory?
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a storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story like episodes holding 7-10 pieces of information which may be combined with other memory stores
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What is the central executive of working memory?
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the control centre of working memory which coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the three storage components
what information relies on what is relevant to the person's goals, interests and prior knowledge |
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What are declarative (explicit) memories?
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memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized including facts about the world and one's own personal experiences
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What are episodic memories?
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declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around "episodes" and are recalled from first-person perspective
ex. your first day of uni |
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What are sematic memories?
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declarative memories that include facts about the world
ex. knowing the capital of Ontario is Toronto |
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What are non-declarative (implicit) memories?
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memories that include actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness
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What are procedural memories?
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patterns of muscle movements (motor memory)
ex. how to walk |
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What is priming?
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the idea that previous exposure to a stimulus will affect an individual's later response to that stimulus or something related to it
can occur regardless of whether the primed stimulus was consciously perceived or attended to |
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What does long-term potentiation (LTP) demonstrate?
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that there is an increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together
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What is consolidation?
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the process of converting STM into LTM in the brain
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What is cellular consolidation?
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hen neurons fire together a number of times, they will adapt and make changes more permanent
involves physical changes to synapse between cells USE IT OR LOSE IT |
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What is amnesia?
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a profound loss of at least one form of memory
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What is anterograde amnesia?
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the inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury
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What is reconsolidation?
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when the hippocampus functions to update, strengthen or modify existing long-term memories
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What is cross-cortical storage?
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long-term declarative memories distributed through out the cortex of the brain
the more that a memory is retrieved, the larger and more distributed the network will become |
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What is retrograde amnesia?
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a condition in which memory for the events preceding trauma or injury is lost
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What is maintenance rehearsal?
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prolonging exposure to information by repeating it
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What is elaborative rehearsal?
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prolonging exposure to information by thinking about it's meaning
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What is levels of processing (LOP)?
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our ability to recall information is most directly related to how that information was initially processed
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What is shallow processing involve?
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superficial properties of a stimulus
ex. the sound/spelling of a word |
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What is deep processing related to?
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items meaning or function
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When does the self-reference effect occur?
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when you think about information in terms of how it relates to you or how it is useful to you
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What is survival processing?
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when items are processed as they relate to survival causing them to more likely recalled
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What is recognition?
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identifying a stimulus or piece of information when it is presented to you
ex. multiple choice test |
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What is recall?
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the retrieval of information when asked but without that information being present during the retrieval process
ex. short answer questions |
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What are retrieval cues?
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hints that help prompt memory
can be people, places, sights and sounds |
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What is context dependent memory?
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the idea that retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting as encoding
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What is the context reinstatement effect?
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when you return to the original location and the memory suddenly comes back
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What is state dependant learning?
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the dependence upon a substance as the retrieval cue
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What is mood dependant learning?
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when the mood at retrieval matches the mood during encoding causing a greater memory
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What is a flashbulb memory?
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a vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event
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When does the forgetting curve occur?
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most forgetting occurs right away and eventually slows to the point where one does not seem to forget at all
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What are mnemonics?
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a technique intended to improve memory for specific information
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What is the method of loci?
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a mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path
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What are acronyms?
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pronounceable words whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items
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What is the first letter technique?
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when someone uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence
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When does dual coding occur?
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when information is stored in more than one form the information receives deeper processing to create a larger number of memory associations and potential retrieval cues
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What is the schema?
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organized clusters of memories that constitute one's knowledge about events, objects and ideas which guide what we attend to during encoding, organizing stored memory and also serve as cues when it comes time to retrieve information
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What is constructive memory?
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the process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details
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What is organization?
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when we encounter new situations, objects or events that undoubtedly fit or schemas (expectations) better then others making them easier to recall
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What is distinctiveness?
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when we encounter new information that do not with our schemas making it difficult to remember
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What is infantile amnesia?
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memories that do not exist until the age of 3 because the nervous system is still developing through infancy and toddler hood limiting the degree to which young people can think, reflect on and remember personal experiences
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What is false memory?
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remembering events that did not occur or incorrectly recalling details of an event
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What is the misinformation effect?
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when information occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event
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What is imagination inflation?
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increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event
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What is guided imagery?
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a guide that gives instructions to participants to imagine certain events which can be used to alter memories for actual events or create entirely false memories
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What is recovered memory?
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a memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time
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What is repression?
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the suppression of traumatic events
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What is the recovered memory controversy?
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a heated debate among psychologists about the validity of recovered memories
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What is problem solving?
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accomplishing a goal when the solution or path to the solution is not clear
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What are algorithms?
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problem solving strategies based off of a set of rules which are logical and follow a set of steps usually in present order
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What are heuristics?
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problem solving strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is most likely the solution
"rules of thumb" |
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What are cognitive obstacles?
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problem solving rules and strategies that you have established that get in the way of problem-solving
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What is a mental set?
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a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem
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What is functional fixedness?
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when an individual identifies an object or technique that could potentially solve a problem but can think of only it's most obvious function
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What is a representativeness heuristic?
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making judgements of the likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category
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What is a availability heuristic?
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estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind
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When do anchoring effects occur?
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when an individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to keep the response within a limited range
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What are framing effects?
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decision making influenced by how the problem is worded or framed
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What is belief perseverance?
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when an individual believes they have the solution to the problem or the correct answer for a question and accepts only evidence that will confirm those beliefs
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When does the confirmation bias occur?
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when an individual searches for only evidence that confirms their beliefs instead of evidence that might dis-confirm them
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What does it mean to be a satisfier?
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you actively seek to make decisions that are "good enough"
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What does it mean to be a maximizer?
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attempting to evaluate every option for every choice until you find the perfect fit
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What is the paradox of choice?
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observation that more choices can lead to less satisfaction
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What is cognitive development?
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the study of changes in memory, thought and reasoning processes that occur throughout the life span
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What is assimilation?
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a conservative process whereby people fit new information into the belief systems they already posses
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What is accommodation?
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the creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on experience
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When does the sensorimotor stage occur? What takes place at this stage?
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0-2 years
cognitive experiences based on direct, sensory experience with the world. Motor movements allow the infant to interact with the world through object permanence |
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When does the pre-operational stage occur? What takes place at this stage?
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2-7 years
thinking moves beyond immediate appearance of objects. Child understands physical conservation and that symbols, languages and drawings can be used to represent ideas |
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When does the concrete operational stage occur? What takes place at this stage?
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7-11 years
ability to perform mental transformations on objects that are physically present. Thinking becomes logical and organized |
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When does the Formal operational stage occur? What takes place at this stage?
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11+ years
the capacity for abstract and hypothetical thinking develops and scientific reasoning becomes possible |
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What is object permanence?
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the ability to understand that objects exist even when they can not be directly percieved
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What is conservation?
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the knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not just the physical arrangement or appearance of that object
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What does the care-knowledge hypothesis propose?
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that infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environments
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What is habituation?
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the decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event
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What is dehabituation?
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the increase in responsiveness with the presentation of a new stimulus
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When is the zone of proximal development?
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when children attempt skills and activities that are just beyond what they can do alone but they have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress
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What is scaffolding?
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a highly attentive approach to teaching in which the teaches matches guidance to the learner's needs
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What is attachment?
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the enduring emotional bond between individuals
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What are attachment motivations?
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the deeply rooted motivations compelling us to seek out others for physical/psychological comfort especially when stressed or insecure
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What is stranger anxiety?
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signs of distress infants show toward strangers at 8 months of age
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What is the strange situation according to Mary Ainsworth?
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a way of measuring infant attachment by observing how they behave when exposed to different experiences that involve anxiety and comfort
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What is secure attachment?
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the caregiver is a secure base that the child turns toward to "check in" occasionally while exploring a room
when caregiver leaves, they will avoid the stranger and seeks comfort once the caregiver returns ultimately relieving their distress |
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What is anxious/resistant
attachment? |
the caregiver is an extremely secure base for the child causing them to have "clingy behaviour"
when caregiver leaves, the child is very upset while being fearful or the stranger when caregiver returns they will seek comfort but also push/resist the caregiver not allowing their distress to be easily relieved |
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What is avoidant attachment?
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the child does not need the caregiver at all and plays in the room oblivious to them and is not upset when the caregiver leaves while being unconcerned about that stranger
when the caregiver leaves, they do not seek contact |
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What is disorganized attachment?
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a sense of instability where the caregiver is both a source of comfort and fear leaving the child confused between comfort and wanting to get away from the caregiver
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What causes the formation of an insecure attachment style?
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under-responsiveness or over-involvement/hypersensitivity
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What is self-awareness?
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the ability to recognize one's individuality by 8-14 months
by age 5, child will be self-reflective, show concern for others and will be interested in the cause for other's behaviours |
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What does it mean to be egocentric?
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you only consider you own perspective
ends at age 7 |
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What is the theory of mind?
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the ability to recognize thoughts, beliefs and expectations of others and to understand these can be different from one's own
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What is instrumental helping?
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providing practical assistance such as helping to retrieve an object that is out of reach
1 years old |
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What is empathetic help?
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providing help in order to make someone feel better
2 years old |
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What is the attachment
behavioural system focused on? |
meeting our own needs for security
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What is the care-giving behavioural system focused on?
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meeting the needs of others
shut down if ABS is activated |
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What is introjection?
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internalization of conditional regard of significant others
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What is inductive discipline?
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involves explaining the consequences of a child's actions on other people, activating empathy for other's feelings causing an increase in mastery of skills and emotional/behavioural self-control
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What is the GOLDEN RULE?
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"Do unto your children as you would have someone do unto you"
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What does the hypothalamus do in regards to hormones?
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begins stimulating the release of hormones such as testosterone and estrogen which continue to the development of sex traits
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What are primary sex traits?
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changes in the body that are part of reproduction
ex. enlargement of genitals, ability to ejaculate and onset of mestration |
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What are secondary sex traits?
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changes in the body that are NOT part of reproduction
ex. growth of pubic hair, increase in breast size and muscle mass |
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What is menarche in females?
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the onset of menstruation around the age of 12 which is influenced by physiological/environmental factors such as nutrition, genetics, PA levels and illness
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What is spermarche in males?
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the first ejaculation of sperm around the age of 14
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What does puberty produce?
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feelings of self-consciousness and the heightened desire to be attractive and "fit in" with an increased sexual interest and sexual experimentation
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What is delay gratification?
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putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer-term goals
not living in the moment |
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What are adolescents more prone to do?
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engage in impulsive and risky decision making such as driving recklessly, unsafe sex, drug and alcohol abuse and accidents or violence because teenage culture glorifies high-risk activities
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What did Lawrence Kohlberg research?
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how people reasoned through complex moral dilemmas
found that males put an emphasis on standards of justice and fairness |
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What did Carol Gilligan discover?
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that females base moral decisions on a standard of caring for others
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What is the social institutionalist
model of morality state? |
that moral judgements are guided by intuitive, emotional reactions
we make decisions based on "gut reaction" then create a justification for our actions later |
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What is pre-conventional morality?
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self-interest in seeking reward and avoiding punishment
considered very basic and egocentric |
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What is conventional morality?
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morality that regards social conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behaviour
directions from parents/teachers/law used as guidelines |
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What is post-conventional morality?
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morality that considers rules and the law as relative where right and wrong are determined by more abstract principles of justice and rights
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What is identity?
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a clear sense of what kind of person you are, what type of people you belong with and what roles you should play in societyW
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What is an identity crisis?
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curiosity, questioning and exploration of different identities with the potential conflict with family
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What are cliques?
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small groups where membership and identities are constantly changing
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What are crowds?
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common social and behavioural conventions
ex. jocks, geeks, goths, druggies |
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What is the hierarchy of needs created by Abraham Maslow?
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survival needs > social or achievement needs
once survival needs are met you can move onto higher-level needs by fulfilling one before being able to move onto another |
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What is self-actualization?
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a point at which a person reaches their full potential as a creative, deep thinking and accepting human being
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What are aesthetic needs?
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symmetry, order and beauty
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What are cognitive needs?
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to know, understand and explore
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What are esteem needs?
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to achieve, be competent and to gain approval and recongnition
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What are belongingness or love needs?
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to be with others, to be accepted and belong
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What are safety needs?
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to feel secure, safe and out of danger
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What are physiological needs?
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hunger, thirst, fatigue, etc
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What is the need to belong (affiliation motivation)?
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the motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation and mutual concern for each person's well-being where there is a sense that these feelings are part of a permanent relationship
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What is love?
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feelings of belonging that accompany friendship or family bonds
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What is passionate love?
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a physical and emotional longing for the other person usually at the beginning of a relationship
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What is compassionate love?
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tenderness and affection felt when lives are intertwined with another person, more indicative of a loving relationship
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What is oxycotin?
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a hormone related to feelings of trust and desire to be close to someone
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What is commitment influenced by?
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- the initial strength of attraction
- the number of barriers to leaving the relationship - the availability of alternatives |
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What is achievement motivation?
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the drive to perform at higher levels and to accomplish significant goals
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What is an approach goal?
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an enjoyable or pleasant incentive that a person is drawn toward
ex. praise, financial reward, feelings of satisfaction |
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What is an avoidance goal?
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an attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome
ex. shame, embarrassment, losing money, feelings of emotional pain |
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What are universal needs?
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needs that (almost) all humans experiences
relatedness, autonomy and competence |
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What is relatedness?
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the feeling of connecting with others by forming meaningful bonds with others such as family members, team mates, and colleagues
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What is autonomy?
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the need to feel in control of your own life
no control = decreased motivation |
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What is competence?
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the ability to perform a task at a skill level that is satisfying to the individual
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What is self-efficacy?
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an individuals confidence that they can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem causing an increase in motivation and performance
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What does the self-determination theory state?
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an individual has the ability to achieve their goals and attain psychological well being
this is influenced by the degree to which they are in control of the behaviours necessary to achieve these goals |
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What is extrinsic (performance) motivation?
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motivation geared toward gaining rewards, public recognition or avoiding embarrassment
not effective motivation because you give up autonomy |
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What is intrinsic (mastery) motivation?
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the process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours and over come challenges with a genuine desire to master the task rather then being motivated by a reward
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What is amotivation?
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feelings of having little or no motivation to perform a behaviour
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What is emotion?
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a behaviour with a subjective thought and/or experience with an accompanying pattern of neural activity/physical arousal and an observable behavioural expression
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What is the amygdala?
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a group of nuclei in the medial portion of the temporal lobe in each hemisphere on the brain which fires when a stimuli is perceived as emotionally arousing (fear)
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What does the James-Lange Theory of Emotion suggest?
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that our physical reactions to stimuli (ex. racing heart) precede the emotional experience (ex. the fear)
the emotion felt is based on your initial perception of the stimulus where your brain receives feedback about the response and decides you should feel ________ |
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What does the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion suggest?
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that the brain interprets a situation and generates a subjective emotional feeling which trigger responses in the body
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What does the facial feedback hypothesis suggest?
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that our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states
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What is the two-factor theory of emotion?
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patterns of physical arousal and the cognitive labels we attach to them are from the basis of our emotional experiences
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What is a polygraph?
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a lie detector test which measures whether heart rate and sweating increase when a person responds to different events or questions
a sudden change in either means the person is stressed and hiding something but these tests can be inaccurate |
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What are micro-emotions?
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our real emotional response seen before we try to tell a lie
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What does body language provide?
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almost as much emotional information as facial expressions
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What are emotional dialects?
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variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed
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What are display rules?
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unwritten expectations we have regarding when it is appropriate to show a certain emotion
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What is mimicry?
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the behaviours, emotional displays and facial expressions of others we take on for ourselves
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What is the chameleon effect?
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when people mimic others non-consciously, automatically copying others behaviours without even realizing it
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What are social norms?
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THE (USUALLY UNWRITTEN) guidelines for how to behave in social contexts
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When does social loafing occur?
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when an individual puts less effort into working on a task with others because of low efficacy beliefs, believing their contributions are not important to the group, not caring about the groups outcome or feeling like others are not trying very hard
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What is social facilitation?
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when one's performance is affected by the presence of others
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What is choking?
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an interference with performance when skills are poor or the task is to difficult when others are watching
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What is group think?
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the stifling of diversity that occurs when individuals are unable to express their true perspectives and instead focus on agreeing with others and maintaining harmony within the group
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What is a normative influence?
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social pressure to adapt to a group's perspective in order to be accepted rather than rejected from the group
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When does a informational influence occur?
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when people internalize the value or beliefs of the group coming to believe the same things and feel the same way themselves
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What is the bystander effect?
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the presence of others actually reduces the likelihood of helping behaviours
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When does the diffusion of responsibility occur?
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when responsibility for taking action is spread across more then one person, thus making no single individual feel personally responsible
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When does pluralistic ignorance occur?
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when there is a dysfunction between the private beliefs of individuals and the public behaviour they display to others
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What are social roles?
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specific sets of expectations for how someone in a specific position should behave
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What are explicit processes?
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deliberative, effortful, relatively slow and generally under our intentional control
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What are implicit processes?
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intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast and operate largely outside our intentional control
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What are the dual process models?
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models of behaviour that account for both implicit and explicit processes
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What is person perception?
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the processes by which individuals categorize and form judgements about other people guided by past experiences with people and interpersonal knowledge absorbed from culture
begins as soon as encounter with another person happens |
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What are thin slices of behaviour?
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very small samples of a person's behaviour
ex. facial appearance |
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When do self-fulfilling prophecies occur?
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when a first impression or expectation affects one's behaviour and affects other people's behaviours leading one to "confirm" the initial impression/expectation
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What is the false consensus effect?
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the tendency to project self-concept onto the social world
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What is naive realism?
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the tendency to assume the way we see things is the way that they are
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What are self-serving biases?
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biased ways of processing self-relevant information to enhance our positive self evaluation
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What is the better -than-average effect?
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the tendency to assume that we are better than average
this influences the types of attributions and explanations that we make for our own/other's behaviours |
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What are internal (dispositional) attributions?
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attributions whereby the observer explains the behaviour of the actor in terms of some innate quality of that person
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What are external (situational) attributions?
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attributions where by the observer explains the actor's behaviour as a result of a situation
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What is the fundamental attribution error (FAE)?
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the tendency to over-emphasize internal attributions and under-emphasize situational factors
when we explain our own actions we emphasize whichever paints us in the best light |
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What are in-groups?
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groups we feel positively towards and identify with
ie. family, home team, group of bffs |
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What are out-groups?
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"other" groups that we don't identify with
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What is the in-group bias?
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positive biases toward self-extended to include in-groups
people become motivated to see in-group as superior to all out-groups |
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What is the minimal group paradigm?
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how easily people will form social categories (us v.s them) even using criteria that is meaningless
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