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91 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Richard Atkinson and Richard Shriffrin's model |
Encoding-Getting info Storage-Retaining info Retrieval-Get info back |
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How we process info |
We can process many aspects of a problem simultaneously. |
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Connectionism |
Info processing model that focuses on the complex, simultaneous processing. |
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What are memories? |
Memories are products of interconnected neural networks and specific memories arise from particular activation patterns in these networks. |
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Can neural networks change? |
Neural networks change (creating and strengthening pathways) in response to interacting in the environment. |
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Sensory memory (fleeting) |
-Immediate recording of sensory info in the memory system. -Atkinson and Shiffrin
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Short-term memory (Encoded via rehearsal) |
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before it is tossed or stored. |
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Long term memory |
Relatively permanent store in house or memory (knowledge, skill, experience, etc) |
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Alan Baddeley and others |
They challenged Atkinson and Shiffrin's view of the short term memory as a small brief storage space. Research shows it involves active processing and this is where you are making sense of new input and linking with long term memories. |
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Working Memory |
-Renamed -Focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info and info retrieved from long-term memory. -Baddeley's model |
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Central Executive |
-Visual-spacial -Mentally moving furniture -Auditory -Repeating -Long-Term memory -Focusing attention |
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Maintenance Rehearsal |
Mental or verbal repetition of information Allows info to remain in working memory longer than usual 30 seconds. |
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Encoding |
The processing of information into the memory system- For example, by extracting meaning. |
Explicit memories-The facts and experiences we consciously know and declare (a.k.a declarative memories)
Requires effortful processing (attention and conscious effort) |
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Implicit Memories |
Outside of the Atkinson and Shiffrin stages we have implicit memories (a.k.a non-declarative memories)
In implicit memory we see unconscious encoding of incidental info such as space, time and frequency.
Uses automatic processing.
Include both procedural memory and conditioned associations.
Procedural memory is used for automatic skills (how to ride a bike, brush your hair, chop peppers, etc)
Associations link stimuli. |
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Space (Implicit memory) |
When studying you'll encode the place on the page where certain things appear. When you're retrieving the info you may visualize the info. |
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Time |
As you live your life, you are keeping track of sequence events. |
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Automatic Processing |
Difficult to shut off- happens so effortlessly Effortful processing can become automatic, for example language. |
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Flashbulb memory |
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
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Effortful Processing |
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
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Spacing Effect |
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. What is quickly learned is quickly forgotten. |
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Serial Position Effect |
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
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Visual encoding |
The encoding of picture images. |
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Acoustic Encoding |
The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words. |
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Semantic encoding |
The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. |
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Imagery |
Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. |
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Mnemonics |
Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
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Chunking |
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically. Personally meaningful arrangements. |
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Iconic memory |
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. |
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Echoic Memory |
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds. |
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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) |
An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.
Thought to be the neural basis for learning and memory. Rats- Mutant mice without an enzyme needed for LTP can't learn their way out of a maze Rats given a drug that enhances LTP learn how to get out of the maze and quickly. |
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Hippocampus |
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. |
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Priming |
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. |
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Mood-Congruent memory |
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. |
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Verbal Info |
Processed at different levels. |
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Shallow Info |
Encoded at a very basic level. |
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Deep Processing |
Encodes semantically (based on the meaning of the words) If you learn things more deeply you'll remember it better |
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Cognition |
All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. |
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Cognitive Psychology |
Studies how the mind: -Organizes perceptions -Processes information -Interprets experience |
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Concepts |
Mental groupings of similar events, ideas and people. |
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Concept Formation |
Concept -A mental grouping of persons, places, ideas, events, or objects that share common properties -Priming -When one concept is 'activated', others nearby in the network are primed. |
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Prototype |
Best representative of a concept. Ex- When I say the word sport- did you picture Football? Basketball? Golf? Chess? NASCAR? |
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Why do prototypes matter? |
-Prejudices- Less likely to recognize prejudice and discrimination that does not fit our prototype |
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Algorithm |
A systematic, step-by-step problem-solving strategy, guaranteed to provide a solution |
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Trial and Error |
Trying something, seeing if it works, and if it doesn't trying something else. |
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Heuristic |
A simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgement. |
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Heuristic |
A simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgement-Prone to Errors |
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Insight |
A sudden realization of a problem's solution- This is not a strategy based solution to solve problems efficiently. |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
A tendency so see how similar to the prototype it seems. Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind. |
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Availability Heuristic |
A tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of how easily instances of it can be recalled. Vivid examples in the news on social media often cause an availability heuristic. |
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Heuristics- Belief Perseverance |
Maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong. |
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Heuristics- Belief Bias |
People will tend to accept any and all conclusions and that fit in with their systems of belief, without challenge or any deep consideration of what they are actually agreeing with. |
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Mental Set |
The tenancy to use a strategy that has worked in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem. |
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Functional Fixedness |
A tendency to think of objects in term their usual functions, a limitation that disrupts problem solving |
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Confirmation Bias |
Search only for evidence that will verify one's beliefs/preconceptions. |
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Framing |
The way something's phrased can dramatically effect the way we view it. |
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Fixation |
The inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they seem to represent or match certain prototypes; may lead to ignore other relevant info. |
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Availability Heuristic |
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we assume such events are common. |
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Overconfidence |
The tenancy to be more confident than correct- To overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements. |
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) |
The science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and stimulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning and understanding language. |
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Computer Neural Networks |
Computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize Visual patterns and smells. |
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Divergent Thinking |
The ability to produce multiple ideas, answers or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution. Marked by higher levels of activity in the right frontal cortex. |
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Language |
Formal system of communication. Between 5,000 and 6,000 languages, worldwide. -Most languages also have many dialects. |
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Semantic Language |
There are separate units in a language and these units have meaning. |
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Generative |
Combine language in novel ways. |
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Displacement |
The property of language that accounts for the capacity to communicate about matters that are not in the here-and-now For example, we can talk about people who aren't present at the scene, flying a tardis, the future, etc. |
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Phoneme |
Basic building block of spoken language.
In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. Chug has three phonemes, ch, u, g. |
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Morpheme |
Smallest unit that carries meaning. |
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Grammar |
The rules of a language |
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Syntax |
Specifics how words can be arranged |
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Semantics |
Specifies how meaning is understood and communicated |
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Transformational Grammar |
Any one thought can be expressed in different ways. |
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Language Acquisition |
Birth- Cooing, crying, gurgling 4-6 Months- Babbling At 10 months the babbling takes on more recognizable forms, da da ma ma 12 months- First words- e.g. juice, puppy, mum, candy, deer 2 years and up- Telegraphic speech- e.g. more juice; book sit. -Overextension juice (milk), juice (juice), juice (water) |
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Language Acquisition |
No one disputes the stages of language development But there are two main questions in terms of what it all means. |
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Is it nature or nurture-Skinner |
-Nurture
Children learn to speak the way animals learn to run mazes
They associate objects and words, imitate adults, and repeat phrases that are met by social reinforcement.Through trial and error, for example, a baby of English-speaking parents learns to repeat the babbling sounds that excite mom and dad but not foreign sounds that leave them cold. Through trial and error, for example, a baby of English-speaking parents learns to repeat the babbling sounds that excite mom and dad but not foreign sounds that leave them cold.
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Is it nature or nurture? -Chomsky |
-Nature The human brain is specially hard-wired for the acquisition of language (LAD) Children are endowed from birth with a 'universal grammar' (core rules common to all human languages) They are also born with the ability to apply these rules to the language they hear spoken |
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Problems with Skinner's ideas |
Ask yourself: Do children hear perfectly formed language?
How can children learn language perfectly if their input is not perfect? If we only learn what we hear, how do you explain the creation of complex, unique sentences/structures? |
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Remember Chomsky says: |
We are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and access to Universal Grammar (UG) We are not born knowing English, or French, or Thai. Rather, we are born with innate knowledge of certain Universal structures. How? Input in a specific language triggers the LAD. Children discover basic structures of the language to be learned by 'comparing' the innate knowledge of language with the structure of the particular language. |
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Chomsky's Points |
Good Points:
Explains why language is learned relatively quickly
Explains how language is learnt despite poverty of the stimulus Bad Points: -Cannot explain why children make grammatical errors. |
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Victor- The 'Wild Boy of Aveyron' |
Found naked in the woods in 1798, aged about 11 or 12 years. Insensitive to noise and pleasing smells Made only gutteral sounds Did not imitate Within 5 years he could distinguish emotions became genuinely affectionate, loved helping people, etc. |
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Genie's case |
Genie's case is suggestive of the position that there is a critical period for first language learning. If a child is not exposed to language during early childhood (prior to the age of 6 or 7), then the ability to learn syntax will be impaired while other abilities are less strongly affected. |
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Thought First |
Piaget believed that children must understand a concept before they can use words to describe it. -Babies cannot day 'All gone' or 'bye-bye' until they understand the concept of object permanence. |
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Language First |
Others believe that language shapes thought and that children develop concepts in order to understand the words they hear. A child hears 'dog' and tries to understand it by searching for objects that might fit. |
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Both views are correct |
Words and concept emerge at roughly the same time- and the casual arrow points in both directions. Sometimes children use |
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Whorf's Linguistic Determinism |
Language determines the way that we think The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf believes that is why they rarely think of the past. |
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Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum |
-Cerebellum is important for forming and storing memories created through classical conditioning -The basal ganglia facilitate procedural memory formation. |
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Emotions and Memories |
-Emotions persist without consciousness awareness -You may not remember the film that made you sad but you retain the sadness (hippocampal damage) |
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Retrieval Cues |
-Priming -Context dependent memory -State-dependent memory What we learn in one state is more easily learned or recalled in that state. |
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Encoding Failure Demonstrative |
What is on the front of a penny? According to this theory we might not pay attention to things we see every day. |
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Forgetting as Retrieval Failure |
Sometimes info is encode into LTM but we can't retrieve it. |
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Interference Theories |
- 'Memories interfering with Memories" |
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