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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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short term memory
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older term, emphasis on input and storage of new information
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working memory
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newer term, emphasis on retrieval from long-term memory, problem solving, etc.
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chunk
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complex grouping of simpler items into a single memorable concept
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recoding
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process of grouping items together and remembering the newly formed groups
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decay
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forgetting caused by the passage of time
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Brown-Peterson task
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people see three letters which they are told to remember, then a three-digit number which they count backwards from, then report the three letters; results in very low accuracy, seen as evidence for decay, but actually shows interference
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proactive interference
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older material interferes with recollection of current stimulus
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retroactive interference
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newer material interferes with recollection of older items
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release from proactive interference
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decline in performance caused by proactive interference is reversed because of a change in the nature of the current stimuli
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serial position curve
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graph of item-by-item accuracy on a recall task
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free recall
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recall the list items in any order
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serial recall
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recall the list items in their original order of presentation
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primacy effect
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accuracy of recall for the early list positions; strong effect means accurate recall of early items, caused by rehearsal
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recency effect
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level of correct recall on the final items of the originally presented list; most recent items are remembered in the short-term memory
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process model
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flowchart of mental processes
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serial self-limiting search
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mentally search one item at a time until a match is found
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parallel search
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search all items as the same time
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serial exhaustive search
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scan one item at a time for the entire set, even if a match is found sooner
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central executive
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component of working memory responsible for planning future actions, initiating retrieval and decision processes, and integrating information coming into the system
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phonological lop
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component of working memory responsible for rehearsal of verbal information and phonological processing
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phonological store
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component of the phonological loop, a passive store component
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articulatory loop
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part of the phonological loop involved in the active refreshing of information through rehearsal
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word length effect
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the longer the words (in syllables) are the fewer they can remember; evidence for the articulatory loop
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articulatory suppression effect
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people have poorer memory for a set of words if they are asked to say something while they are trying to remember
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phonological similarity effect
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memory is poorer when people need to remember a set of words that are phonologically similar
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visuo-spatial sketch pad
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system specialized for visual and spatial information, part of the working memory
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mental rotation
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mentally turning spinning or rotating objects in the visuo-spatial sketch pad of working memory
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boundary extension
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people tend to misremember more of a scene than was actually viewed, as if the boundaries of the image were extended further out
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representational momentum
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misremembering the movement of an object further along its path of travel than where it actually was when it was last seen
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episodic buffer
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portion of working memory where information from different modalities and sources are bound together to form new episodic memories
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declarative or explicit memory
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long-term memory knowledge that can be retrieved and reflected on consciously
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nondeclarative or implicit memory
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knowledge that can influence thoughts or behavior without any necessary involvement of conscious awareness
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episodic memory
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memory of the personally experienced and remembered events
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semantic memory
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general knowledge
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mnemonic devices
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active, strategic learning devices or methods; three principles are provides a structure for learning, creates durable and distinctive record, guides through retrieval by cues
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relearning task
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a list is learned, set aside for a period of time, and later relearned to the same criterion of accuracy
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savings score
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reduction of the number of trials or time necessary for relearning compared to the original learning
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metamemory
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knowledge about one's own memory
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metacognition
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knowledge about one's own cognitive system and its functioning
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isolation effect/von Restorff effect
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improved memory for one piece of information that is distinct from the information around it
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rehearsal
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deliberate practicing of the contents of the short term store
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maintenance rehearsal
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low level repetitive information recycling
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elaborative rehearsal
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more complex rehearsal that uses the meaning of the information to help store and remember it
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recognition tasks
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people are shown items that were originally studied (old or target items) as well as items that were not studied (new or distractor items) and decide which they have seen before
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generation effect
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information that one generates oneself is better remembered compared to information that was heard or read
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enactment effect
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improved memory for participant-performed tasks relaive to those that are not
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organization
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structuring or restructuring of information as it is being stored in memory
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subjective organization
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organization developed by a person for structuring or remembering a list of items without externally-supplied categories
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visual imagery
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mental picturing of a stimulus that affects later recall or recognition
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pair-associated learning
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learn the list so that the correct response item can be reproduced whenever the stimulus item is presented
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dual coding hypothesis
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words that denote concrete objects can be encoded into memory twice, once for once for verbal attributes and once for visual attributes
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encoding specificity
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each item is encoded into a richer memory representation that includes the context an item was in during encoding
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retrieval cue
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useful prompt or reminder for the information to be retrieved
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consolidation
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more permanent establishment of memories in the neural architecture
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accessibility
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the degree to which information can be retrieved from memory
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part-set cuing
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if you cue people with a subset of a list of words, they will have more difficulty recalling the rest of the set than if they had not been cued at all
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repetition priming
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a previous encounter with information facilitates later performance on the same information, even unconsciously
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network
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interrelated set of concepts or interrelated body of knowledge; each concept is a node and each link is a pathway
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proposition
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relation between two concepts
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property statement
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statement about the properties of a concept
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intersection
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when the two spreads of activation encounter one another
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feature list
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semantic memory is a collection of lists of semantic features
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semantic feature
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one-element characteristics or properties of a concept
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defining feature
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essential to the concept which is being defined
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characteristic features
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common but not essential to the meaning of the concept
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sentence verification task
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simple sentences are presented for true/false decisions, used to test semantic memory models and semantic relatedness
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semantic relatedness effect
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concepts that are more highly interrelated can be retrieved and judged true more rapidly than those with a lower degree of relatedness
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perceptual symbols
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semantic memory is built up of sensory and motor elements derived from experience
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facilitation/benefits
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positive influence of a prime on processing
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inhibition/costs
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negative influence of a prime on processing
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reconstructive memory
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people construct a memory by combining elements from the original material together with existing knowledge
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schema
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stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic
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scripts
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large-scale semantic knowledge structures that guide our interpretation and comprehension of ordered daily experiences
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frames
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details about specific events within the script
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default value
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common typical value or concept that occupies a frame
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classic view of categorization
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people create and use categories based on a system of rules about what can belong in each category
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current view of categorization
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categories have graded membership, so that items within the category can vary as to how much they meet the rules or have typical qualities
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central tendency
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there is some mental core or center to the category where the best-fitting members will be found
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typicality effects
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the time needed to make category judgments depends on how typical the item is in its category
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family resemblance
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there is some set of features that many or most of the members of the category share, but there is no one feature which all must have
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correlated attributes
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most features often appear with one or more other features, ex beak and feathers
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probabilistic theories
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assume that categories in semantic memory are created by taking into account various probabilities and likelihoods across a person's existence
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prototype
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central core instance of a category; idealized representation that probably does not correspond to any individual
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exemplar theory
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people think about categories by mentally taking into account each experience, instance or example, the various encounters that have been experienced with members of that category
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ad hoc categories
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categories a person creates based on situational circumstances; influence by context as well as past experience
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explanation-based theories
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categories are theories of the world created to explain why things are the way they are; categories are structures imposed on the world and do not necessarily reflect the way that the world actually is
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psychological essentialism
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people treat members of a category as if they have the same underlying property or essence
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connectionist models
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massive network of interconnected nodes which can represent any kind of information
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category-specific deficit
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disruption in which a person loses access to one semantic category of words or concepts while not losing others; evidence for connectionist model
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modularity
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theoretical perspective in which different abilities, characteristics, types of cognitive processes, and so forth are theorized to be represented in separate components or modules in memory
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semantic cases
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relationships or connections of meaning; relation--topic of major event, agent--actor, patient/recipient--one who received the action, location, time
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fan effect
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when more words are associated with a concept, response time is longer
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cryptomnesia
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a person unconsciously plagiarizes something he has heard or read before because he has forgotten the source and mistakenly thinks that it is a new idea of his own
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prospective memory
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the ability to remember to do something in the future
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source monitoring
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the ability to accurately remember the source of a memory
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feeling of knowing judgment
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an estimate of how likely it is that an item will be recognized on a later memory test
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judgments of learning
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a prediction after studying a material about whether the information will be remembered on a later memory test
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false memory
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memory of something that did not happen
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memory impairment
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a change or alteration in memory of an experienced event as a function of some later event
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misinformation effect
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people incorrectly claim to remember false information they received at a later time
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source misattribution
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inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the true source of the information
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misinformation acceptance
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people accept additional information as having been part of an earlier experience without actually remembering the information
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source memory
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memory of the exact source of information; source of overconfidence in memory
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processing fluency
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ease with which something is processed or comes to mind; source of overconfidence
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verbal overshadowing
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talking about an event can impair memory for the event itself
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imagination inflation
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imagining that something happened increases later memory reports that it actually did happen
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reminiscence bump
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superior memory than would otherwise be expected for life events between the ages of 15 and 25
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