Psychology 1 Final

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psychological science

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the study of mind, brain, and behavior

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Seven Themes of Psychological Science

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1. Psychology is an empirical science.
2. Nature and Nurture are inextricably entwined.
3. The brain and mind are inseparable.
4. A new biological revolution is energizing research.
5. The mind is adaptive.
6. Psychological science crosses levels of analysis.
7. We often are unaware of the multiple influences on how we think, feel, and act.

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culture

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the beliefs, values, rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment and that are transmitted through learning from one generation to the next

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nature/nurture debate

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the arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture

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mind/body problem

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a fundamental psychological issue that considers whether mind and body are separate and distinct or whether the mind is simply the subjective experience of the physical brain

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evolutionary theory

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in psychological science, a theory that emphasizes he inherited, adaptive value of behavior and mental activity throughout the history of a species

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adaptations

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in evolutionary theory, the physical characteristics, skills, or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations

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natural selection

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Darwin's theory that those who inherit the characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not

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Four Levels of Analysis

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1. Biological
2. Individual
3. Social
4. Cultural

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a. brain systems, neurochemistry, genetics
b. individual differences, perception and cognition, behavior
c. interpersonal behavior
d. thoughts, actions, behaviors-in different societies and cultural groups

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introspection

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a systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts

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structuralism

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an approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components or elements

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Wilhelm Wundt

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Structuralism: Wundt founded modern experimental psychology

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William James

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Functionalism: James was highly influenced by Darwin and is credited with "naturalizing" the mind.

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stream of consciousness

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a phrase coined by William James to describe one's continuous series of ever-changing thoughts

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functionalism

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an approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior

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Gestalt Theory

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a theory based on the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its constituent elements

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Max Wertheimer & Wolfgang Kohler

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Gestalt Theory: opposition to structuralism- the whole is different from the sum of its parts

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Sigmund Freud

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the father of psychoanalytic theory. Freud hugely influenced psychology in the 20th century

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unconscious

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the mental processes that operate below the level of conscious awareness

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psychoanalysis

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a method developed by Sigmund Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed

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behaviorism

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a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior

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John B. Watson

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Watson believed that if psychology was to be a science, it had to stop trying to study mental events that couldn't be observed directly.

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George A. Miller

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Miller launched the cognitive revolution by establishing the Center for Cognitive Science at Harvard University.

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cognitive psychology

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the study of how people think, learn, and remember

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cognitive neuroscience

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the study of the neural mechanisms that underlie thought, learning, and memory

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social psychology

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the stud of group dynamics in relation to psychological processes

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Kurt Lewin

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Lewin founded modern social psychology, pioneering the use of experimentation to test hypotheses and thus to form theories

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The Scientific Method

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a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why.

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1. Focus on a theory
2. Formulate a hypothesis.
3. Conduct research.
4. Analyze whether the data support or refute the theory.
5. Report results and embark on further inquiry.

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Three Types of Studies in Psychological Research

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descriptive, correlational, and experimental

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variable

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something in the world that can be measured and that can vary

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naturalistic observation

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a passive descriptive study in which observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior

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participant observation

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a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation

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Descriptive Studies

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involve observing and classifying behavior, either with no intervention by the observer (naturalistic observation) or with intervention by the observer (participant observation)

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PRO: especially valuable in the early stages of research, when trying to determine whether a phenomenon exists. Takes place in a real-world setting.
CON: Errors in observation can occur because of an observer's expectations (observer bias). Observer's presence can change the behavior being witnessed (reactivity).

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Longitudinal Studies

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involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time, either with no intervention by the observer or with intervention by the observer

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PRO: provide the info about the effects of age on the same people, allowing researchers to see developmental changes.
CON: Expensive, takes a long time, and may lose participants over time.

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Cross-Sectional Studies

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involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in different groups of people at the same time

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PRO: faster and less expensive than longitudinal studies.

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observer bias

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systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations

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experimenter expectancy effect

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actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observer bias

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correlational study

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a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them

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directionality problem

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when researchers find a relationship between two variables in a correlational study, they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

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third variable problem

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when the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not he actual cause of differences in the dependent variable

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Correlational Studies

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examine how variables are related, with no intervention by the observer

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PRO: Rely on naturally occurring relationships. May take place in a real-world setting.
CON: Cannot be used to support causal relationships. Cannot show the direction of the cause/effect relationship between variables. An unidentified variable may be involved.

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experiment

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a study that tests causal hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables

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control (comparison) group

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the participants in a study that receive no intervention on an intervention different from the one being studied

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experimental (treatment) group

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the participants in a study that receive the intervention

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independent variable

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in an experiment, the condition that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable

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dependent variable

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in an experiment, the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable

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confound

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anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study

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population

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everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in

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sample

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subset of a population

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selection bias

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when participants in different groups in an experiment differ systematically

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random assignment

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the procedure for placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable

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meta-analysis

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a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

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culturally sensitive research

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studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts, feelings, and actions

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observational technique

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a research method of careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior

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reactivity

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when the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed

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Cross-Cultural Studies

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compare groups of people from different cultures

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PRO: examine the effect of culture on some variable of interest, thereby making psychology more applicable around the world

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Case Studies

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are a special type of observational/descriptive study that involves intensive examination of one person or a few individuals (clinical case studies) or one a few organizations.

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PRO: can provide extensive data about one or a few individuals or organizations
CON: Can be very subjective: If a researcher has a causal theory, this theory can bias what is observed and recorded. It is not possible to generalize the results from an individual to the population.

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self-report method

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a method of data collection in which people are asked to provide info about themselves, such as in questionnaires or surveys

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response performance

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a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stiumulus

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Interactive Methods

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involve asking questions of participants, who then respond in any way they feel is appropriate or select from among a fixed number of options.

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PRO: Self-report methods such as questionnaires can be used to gather data from a large number of people. They are easy to administer, cost-efficient, and a relatively fast way to collect data. Interviewing people face-to-face gives the researcher the opportunity to explore new lines of questioning. Experience sampling allows researchers to determine how responses vary over time.
CON: People can introduce biases into their answers or may not recall info accurately.

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electroencephalogram (EEG)

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a device that measures electrical activity in the brain

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brain imaging

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a range of experimental techniques that make brain structures and brain activity visible

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positron emission tomography (PET)

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a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream

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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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a method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain

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functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain

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Brain Activity Methods

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measure body/brain responses to tasks or events

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PRO: map the brain in various ways to show brain regions involved in different tasks.
CON: show only the brain regions active while tasks are performed or events occur--we do not know whether, for example, a particular brain region is necessary for a particular task because these data are correlational and thus have the disadvantage of the third variable problem; directionality problem.

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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt norm brain activity as a way to study brain regions

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institutional review boards (IRBs)

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groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants

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validity

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the extent to which the data collected address the research hypothesis in the way intended

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reliability

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the extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions

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accuracy

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the extent to which an experimental measure is free from error

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descriptive statistics

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overall summary of data

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central tendency

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a measure that represents the typical behavior of the group as a whole

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inferential statistics

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a set of procedures used to make judgments about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers

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Human Body

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Cells->Chromosomes->DNA->genes

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chromosomes

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structures within the cell body that are made up of genes

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gene

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he unit of heredity that determines a particular characteristic in an organism

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dominant gene

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a gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present

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recessive gene

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a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parents

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genotype

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the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception

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phenotype

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observable physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences

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monozygotic twins

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twin siblings who result from one zygotic splitting in two and therefore

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dizygotic twins

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twin siblings who result from two separately fertilized eggs

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heritability

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a statistical estimate of the variation, caused by differences in heredity, in a trait within a population

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neuron

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the basic unit of the nervous system; it operates through electrical impulses, which communicate with other neurons through chemical signals. Neurons receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system

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sensory neurons

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on of the three types of neurons, these efferent neurons direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement

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motor neurons

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one of the three types of neurons, these afferent neurons detect info from the physical world and pass that information along to the brain

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interneurons

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communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region

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Reaction Process

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1. Sensory receptors in skin
2. Afferent (sensory neurons)
3. Interneuron
4. Efferent (motor neurons)
5. Muscle contraction

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dendrites

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branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect info from other neurons

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cell body

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in the neuron, where info from thousands of other neurons is collected and processed

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axon

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a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which info is transmitted to other neurons

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terminal buttons

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small nodules, at the ends of axons, that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse

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synapse (synaptic cleft)

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the site for chemical communication between neurons, which contains extracellular fluid

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myelin sheath

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a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon

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nodes of Ranvier

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small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted

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Direction of Nerve Impulse

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1. Dendrites
2. Cell Body
3. Axon
4. Myelin sheath
5. Node of Ranvier
7. Terminal buttons
8. Synapse

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resting membrane potential

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a neuron at rest is polarize--it has a different electrical charge inside and outside (slightly negative inside)

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action potential

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the neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons

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all-or-none principle

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the principle whereby a neuron fires with the same potency each time, although frequency can vary; it either fires or not- it cannot partially fire

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During which phase of clinical trials is the drug given to a small number of volunteers who have the disorder the drug is intended to treat?

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Phase II

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reuptake

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the process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity

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agonist

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any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter

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antagonist

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any drug that inhibits the action of a specific neurotransmitter

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acetylcholine (ACh)

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the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping and dreaming

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epinephrine

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the neurotransmitter responsible for adrenaline rushes, bursts of energy caused by its release throughout the body

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noreinephrine

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the neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and awareness

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serotonin

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a monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming

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dopamine

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a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control

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Parkinson's disease

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a neurological disorder that seems to be caused by dopamine depletion, marked by muscular rigidity, tremors, and difficulty initiating voluntary action

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GABA

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the primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system

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glutamate

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primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system

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endorphins

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a neurotransmitter involved in natural pain reduction and reward

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substance P

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a neurotransmitter involved in pain perception

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central nervous system (CNS)

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the brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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all nerve cells in the body that are not part of the central nervous system. The PNS includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

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Broca's area

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the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language

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brainstem

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a section of the bottom of the brain, housing the most basic programs of survival, such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm

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cerebellum

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a large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brainstem, essential for coordinated movement and balance

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hypothalamus

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a small brain structure that is vital for temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behavior, and motivation

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thalamus

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the gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory information before that info reaches the cortex

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hippocampus

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a brain structure important for the formation of certain types of memory

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amygdala

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serves a vital role in our learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional info

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basal ganglia

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a system of subcortical structures that are important for the initiation of planned movement

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cerebral cortex

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the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain

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occipital lobe

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a region of the cerebral cortex, at the back of the brain, important for vision

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parietal lobe

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a region of the cerebral cortex, in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes, important for the sense of touch and of the spatial layout of an environment

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temporal lobes

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the lower region of the cerebral cortex, important for processing auditory info and for memory

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frontal lobes

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the region at the front of the cerebral cortex concerned with panning and movement

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prefrontal cortex

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important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality

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somatic nervous system

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a major component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves

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autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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a major component of the peripheral nervous system; it regulates the body's internal environment by stimulating glands and by maintaining internal organs such as the heart, gall bladder, and stomach

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sympathetic division of ANS

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a division of the ANS; it prepares the body for action

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parasympathetic division of ANS

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returns the body to its resting state

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endocrine system

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a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions

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hormones

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chemical substances typically released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues, which are subsequently influenced by the hormones

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gonads

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main endocrine glands involved in sexual behavior; in males, the testes; in females, the ovaries

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pituitary gland

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located at the base of the hypothalamus; the gland that sends hormonal signals controlling the release of hormones from endocrine glands

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plasticity

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a property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury