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136 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What Psychology Is NOT
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-Parapsychology (ESP)
-Psychiatry (M.D. vs. Ph.D. or Psy.D) -Only clinical psychology (“Freudian” psychology) |
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What Psychology Is
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-The scientific study of mind and behavior
---Mind: Private, unobservable experiences Thoughts, feelings, attitudes, memories, dreams, etc. ---Behavior: Observable actions (public) *Doing things *Talking about feelings, attitudes, memories, dreams, etc. |
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Socrates & Plato
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Nativism
-Certain knowledge (e.g., language) is innate |
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Aristotle
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Empiricism
-Knowledge is acquired through experience & observation (“blank slate”) |
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Nature vs. Nurture debate
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Without “scientific” data
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Trephination
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Opening skulls to release the spirits
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Dualism (Rene Decartes)
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-Mind and body are separate but coordinated
-The primacy of consciousness (cogito ergo sum) “I think therefore I am” -Dissected animal brains and found “spirits” ...brain juice |
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Phrenology (Franz Joseph Gall)
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-Direct link between mind and body
-Different abilities & traits associated with different areas of the brain *Even as evidenced by shape and bumps of skull |
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Wilhelm Wundt
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-Examined consciousness through introspection
-But also tried more objective measures (Reaction time research) |
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Structuralism
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-What are the basic elements of the mind?
--Sensations/perceptions, emotions, thoughts, memories --Identifying the basic elements of the mind |
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William James
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-Prominent American psychologist
-Wrote the 1st psychology textbook -Guided by evolutionary principles --Consciousness enhances human survival (plan ahead for survival) --Interest in errors in consciousness |
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Functionalism
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What purposes do mental processes serve?
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Gestalt approach
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*antithesis of Structuralism
-Perception is based on a unified whole rather than merely the sum of its parts -Not meaningful to separate the different parts |
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Sigmund Freud
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-Psychoanalytic theory
-The importance of the unconscious --Influential part of mind outside of awareness --Lots of conflict, fear, anxiety |
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Humanistic Psychology
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-An approach that emphasizes the positive potential of humanity
--A response to the bleakness (& weakness?) of Freud -Positive Psychology --Examining “optimal human functioning” |
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Behaviorism
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-Private experience (the mind) was too vague & subjective for science
-Instead focus on objective observable behavior --Law of effect (look at the consequences of behavior) --Stimulus - Response sequence |
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What is Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning?
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What is B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning?
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Cognitive Psychology
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-Mental processes are clearly important!!!!!!
--Language development (Noam Chomsky) -Kurt Lewin --Behavior is influenced by a person’s construal of a stimulus --Based on personality, expectations, etc. B=f(P, E) -Computers as a conceptual model |
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Cognitive/Behavioral Neuroscience
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Identifying the role of specific brain activity
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Evolutionary Psychology
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-Explaining mind & behavior based on principles of natural selection
--Emotions, phobias, romantic attraction, etc. -Predictive value? |
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Social Psychology
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-The cause and consequences of interpersonal behavior
-Focus on the individual in a social world |
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Cultural Psychology
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-How cultures shape and reflect mind & behavior
--Individualism vs. Collectivism |
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1879
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Wundt establishes first Psychology Laboratory
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1894
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Margaret Floy Washburn
First woman PhD |
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1920
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Francis Cecil Summer
First African American PhD |
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Nature vs. Nurture
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Personality
Intelligence Sexual Attraction Aggression |
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Observable Behavior vs. Internal Thinking
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Emotional Expressions
Self-Presentation |
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Awareness & Control vs. Automaticity
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Thoughts
Feelings Behaviors |
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Free Will vs. Determinism
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Judgments & Decision making
Genetic & Evolutionary Influences |
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Individual Differences vs. Universality
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Cultural/gender/racial differences
The power of situations Personality theory |
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Research
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-Neuroscience
--Brain activity, genetics -Cognitive --Thinking, memory -Developmental --Across the lifespan -Social --Perceive & interact with others -Personality --Stable traits that define us |
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Applied
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-Clinical
--Disorders -Counseling --Problems -Industrial-Organizational --Workforce issues -Health --Stress, wellness/prevention -School/Education --Assessment & intervention |
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Training
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PhD: Doctor of Philosophy
--Focus on original research --Thesis, Dissertation PsyD: Doctor of Psychology --Focus on clinical & practitioner skills |
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Employment
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-Academia
--Research University --Liberal Arts College -Private Business --Marketing, Statistics -Self-Employment --Private practice -Government --Civilian, military |
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The Barnum Effect
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The tendency to attribute personal accuracy to vague general information
--Think Horoscopes |
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Empiricism
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-Knowledge through observation
-But mere observation is not enough --Singular personal experiences vs. Accumulated data -The availability heuristic --Estimating probability based on how easily examples come to mind |
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Method
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-A set of rules and techniques
-The scientific method |
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The Hindsight Bias
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-The tendency to exaggerate, after an event is known, our ability to have predicted its outcome
-The “I knew it all along” phenomenon --Sporting events, dating relationships, Government policies, medical treatments |
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Why is Accurate prediction of human behavior difficult?
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-Complexity
-Variability -Reactivity |
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Theory
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-A set of related principles that explain and predict observed facts and events
-Not just an educated guess --Exercise leads to improved health |
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Hypothesis
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-A specific and testable prediction
--If I walk to school everyday, I will lose weight. |
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Variables
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-Start off as abstract concepts or phenomena
--Intoxication, Attractiveness, Weight, etc. |
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Operational Definitions
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A concrete and precise and concrete way of measuring an abstract variable
*Operationalization |
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Observation
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-By people, cameras, computers
-But being observed triggers reactivity --Demand characteristics- clues that cause people to behave in a way they think is expected |
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Naturalistic observation
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But observers’ expectancies can influence observations
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Double-blind observation
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The true purpose of observation is hidden from participants and observer
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Self-reports
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-People answer questions about themselves
--Good for measuring unobservable behaviors -But question wording can influence responses --90% Fat Free vs. 10% Fat Full --Assistance for poor vs. Welfare -Meaningfulness may depend on who responded --What’s the best movie of all time? --How often do you think about sex? |
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Reliability
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-How consistent is measurement?
--Are self-report results similar across time? --Do observers see the same behaviors? |
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Validity
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-Does it measure what it’s supposed to measure?
--Using height to measure exam scores=invalid *A measure can be reliable, but not valid!* |
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Correlational Research
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-Predicting one variable from another
--SAT and college GPA are positively correlated --Stress & Health are negatively correlated *But does not mean one variable caused the other (not causation)* |
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Correlation is NOT Causation
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-Causal direction could be either way
--X causes Y or Y causes X? ----Self-esteem & Academic achievement -Possible influence of a third variable --Z causes X and Y? ---Consider positive correlation between: -Years married & male hair loss -Child IQ & home appliances -Income & shoe size |
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Experiments
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The only way to establish causality!
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Random Assignment
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-Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
-Without random assignment, groups may be different in important ways --This compromises the validity of the research! --e.g., couples who live together before marriage are much more likely to divorce than couples who don’t -With random assignment, groups should be approximately equal in all aspects --sex, age, IQ, etc. |
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Experimental Control
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-Manipulating one variable
-While keeping everything else constant --Test format, room conditions, etc. |
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When can we infer *causality*?
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-Because the only difference between the 2 groups is the manipulation, we can infer causality
-Random assignment = People are “equivalent” -Experimental control = Situations are “equivalent” |
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Independent Variable
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-What’s manipulated by the experimenter
--Sexy Ads or Neutral -Participants experience different conditions -The groups are independent of each other --Experimental group (Sexy) --Control group (Neutral) |
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Dependent Variable
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-Measures the effect of the manipulation
-Memory scores Its value depends on the participants’ condition -Value should NOT depend on any other variable |
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Internal Validity
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-Characteristics that allow for accurate inferences
-Are the effects within the experiment due to the intended manipulation --What else could account for the results? -Was there random assignment? --People who sit on the right have better memory -Was there experimental control? --Ads were different in more ways than just sexual content |
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External Validity
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-The extent to which the effects of the study extend and generalize to other situations & people
--Were the manipulations & measures realistic? Will it be something people encounter? --Were the participants typical? Most psychology research is conducted using college students. How does that affect external validity? |
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Ethics of Research
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-Informed consent
--A written agreement to participate after being informed of all potential risks & benefits But not informed about hypothesis -Freedom from coercion --Can’t be forced to participate against one’s will -Protection from (physical, emotional, psychological) harm --Can not be greater than “everyday life” -Risks-benefits analysis --Some risks are acceptable if outweighed by the benefits -Debriefing --A verbal description of the nature and purpose of the research -Institutional Review Board (IRB) |
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Animal research participants?
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-A small % (5%) of research is performed on non-humans
90% using rats or mice --Within that, only 6% involve pain or discomfort -Animals deserve and receive good care --Protected by IRB guidelines -Humans (and animals) have benefited from scientific research --Scientifically, medically |
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Neurons
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-Estimated 100 billion neurons! (at least)
--Microscopic to several feet long --98% are within our brains --Send very simple messages (Go/No go) |
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Sensory neurons
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Carry sensory information to brain via spinal cord
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Motor neurons
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Carry information from spinal cord to muscles for movement
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Interneurons
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Connect neurons to other neurons
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Mirror Neurons
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-Activated when performing (and observing!) an action
-We often automatically copy other people’s behaviors --Allows for strengthening social relationships (empathy, similarity) |
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Neurotransmitters
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-Chemicals that transmit info across the synapse
--Influence various thoughts, feelings, behaviors --Natural imbalances can be chronic or situational |
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Neurotransmitters: Drugs
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-Drugs induce imbalances by changing quantity/quality of neurotransmitters sent
--Agonists: Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter --Antagonists: Drugs that block the action of a neurotransmitter |
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Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (ACh)
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-Influences muscle control, learning, memory
-Alzheimer’s disease indicates undersupply of ACh -Botox (botulinum toxin) decreases ACh --Antagonist, causes brief paralysis -Black widow venom increases ACh levels --Agonist, causes muscle spasms |
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Neurotransmitters: Dopamine
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-Influences movement, emotions, motivation
-High levels linked to schizophrenia --Antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine (antagonists) ---Which may also reduce motivation -Low levels linked to Parkinson’s disease --L-dopa: agonist drug that increases dopamine ---Allows for control of tremors, easier initiation of movement |
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Neurotransmitters: Endorphins
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-Natural body-produced opiates
-Alleviate pain and increase mood -Artificial opiates (heroin) mimic neurotransmitters --Agonists that prevent natural opiates from binding --Addiction leads to reduced production of opiates --Withdrawal is the body coping with no chemicals |
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Neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine
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-Regulates body’s responses to arousing & rewarding stimuli
--Fight or flight & addictive behaviors (gambling, email-checking) |
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Neurotransmitters: Serotonin
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-Regulation of moods, hunger, sleep arousal
-Undersupply linked to depression, aggression -Antidepressants increase serotonin |
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The Nervous System:
-Peripheral -Central |
-Peripheral
--Somatic (voluntary) --Autonomic (involuntary) ==sympathetic division ==parasympathetic division -Central --Brain --Spinal Cord |
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Somatic Division
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-Voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
-Typing, writing, etc. |
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Autonomic Division
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-Involuntary movements of internal muscles and organs
--Heartbeat, breathing --Digestion (peristalsis) muscles are controlling your digestion |
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Autonomic: Sympathetic Division
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-Arousing reactions (fight or flight)
--Sweating, adrenaline, increased heartbeat |
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Autonomic: Parasympathetic Division
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-Calming reactions after emergency
--Slows heartbeat, conserves energy |
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Spinal reflexes
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-Simple pathways involving rapid muscle movement (finger touching fire, and jerking away)
-Brain is not involved -Evolutionary advantages (more likely to live) |
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Spinal Injuries
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Disrupt sensation & movement
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Hindbrain
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-Coordinates information
--Breathing, sleeping, alertness -Cerebellum: controls fine motor skills, balance --First area impaired by alcohol |
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Midbrain
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-Involved in processing sensory information
-Central location for serotonin and dopamine |
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Cerebral cortex
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-Outermost layer of the brain
-Divided into 2 hemispheres |
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Subcortical structures
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Under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain
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Thalamus
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-Relays and filters sensory information
--Especially during sleep! |
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Hypothalamus
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-Regulates basic body processes & drives
--The 4 Fs (fighting, fleeing, feeding & fornicating) |
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Amygdala
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-Involved in fear, aggression, & arousing, formation of emotional memories
-Amygdala lesions induce emotional passivity --Calmness in wild animals, close personal space in humans |
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Occipital lobe
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Processes visual information
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Parietal lobe
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-Processes touch (pain, sensitivity)
--Somatosensory cortex |
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Temporal lobe
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Processes hearing & language
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Frontal lobe
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-Movement (motor cortex)
-Abstract thinking (planning, memory, judgment) -Association areas help make sense of the world -Neurons in association areas have plasticity --Ability to change/adapt based on experience/damage |
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Lateralization
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-Dominance of one hemisphere in specific functions
-People are not “one-sided” -Everyone uses both hemispheres |
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Left Hemisphere
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-Controls right side of body
-Verbal abilities, language processing -Logic & reasoning skills |
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Right Hemisphere
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-Controls left side of the body
-Spatial relationships, face recognition -Emotions |
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Corpus collosum
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-Connects right & left hemisphere of cerebral cortex
-Allows for inter-hemispheric communication -May be severed to treat severe epileptic seizures * Severance prevents info from being “shared” by both hemispheres |
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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-Records & amplifies electrical activity of the brain
-Sounds of synaptic transmissions indicate activity |
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
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-Detects and locates changes in blood flow within the brain
-Can show “live” brain activation |
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Sensation
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Detection of stimuli from our bodies and our environment
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Perception
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The organization, identification & interpretation of sensory stimuli into meaningful information
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Synesthesia
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The perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense (music notes as colors)
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Transduction
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Conversion of physical signals (e.g., light/sound waves) into neural signals
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Psychophysics
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-Scientific study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience
-At what point is something truly sensed and perceived? (not just a philosophical question) --Early introspection approaches were too |
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Absolute threshold
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-The minimum intensity needed to detect a stimulus
--Provide various levels of stimulation --Perceiver can detect sensation at least 50% |
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Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
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-The minimal change in a stimulus than can be detected
-Amount of change necessary to notice a difference from the original (which circle is darker?) |
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Weber’s Law
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-The just noticeable difference is not fixed, but in constant proportion to the initial stimulus
--e.g., weight = 50:1 --gas prices going up |
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Signal Detection
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-Thresholds imply a dichotomy
--Sensation vs. No sensation -Actual sensation is more variable --Changes across and within people -Signal detection theory --The response to a stimulus depends on: ---Individual sensitivity to a stimulus ---Amount of background “noise” ---Response criterion |
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Sensory Adaptation
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-The decline in sensitivity to prolonged unchanging stimuli
--We respond more strongly to sudden changes in stimulation --Sudden changes imply action may be needed |
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Visual acuity
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The ability to see fine detail
20/20 Numerator = what you can see at 20 feet Denominator = what the “normal” person can see at 20 feet |
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Phototransduction
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-Two types of photoreceptor cells within retina
-Rods --Perception in low light conditions --Shades of gray --Nocturnal species have all rods (can see much better at night) -Cones --Responsible for sharp focus --Color perception --Diurnal species have mostly cones -Fovea --Area of retina where vision is clearest --No rods --For better “night vision” look at objects off-center |
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How many millions of colors can humans perceive between?
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2-7
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Trichromatic theory of color
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-3 types of cones in retina
--Red, Green, Blue --“Colored” light stimulates some/all of each kind to produce any possible color combination -Partially explains color “blindness” --One or more cone types are damaged ---1 in 50 are dichromatic ---1 in 100,000 are monochromatic |
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Opponent-Process theory of color
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-After leaving rods/cones, visual information is processed by opponent cells
-Opponent cells are linked in pairs --red-green, blue-yellow, black-white -Overexposure to one color creates fatigue --Afterwards, opponent color “rebounds” -Camera flash |
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Figure Detection
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-Specialized neurons detect edges, lines, and motion
--Distinguishes figure from ground --Facilitates object (face) recognition -Parallel processing --The ability to process information along several dimensions simultaneously -Perceptual Constancy --Perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in appearance --Shape, color, size |
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Depth Perception
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Perceiving the world as three-dimensional despite a retinal image in two dimensions
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Monocular depth cues
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-Aspects that allow depth perception when only using one eye
--Because of our expectations for an object’s size, smaller objects are perceived as farther away |
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Linear perspective
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Parallel lines converge in the distance
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Texture gradient
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Among a uniformly patterned surface, increases in texture detail imply closeness
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Interposition
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A blocking object is closer than the blocked object
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Light & shadow
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Light (from above) creates shadows
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Retinal disparity
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The difference in retinal images of both eyes
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Audition
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Hearing is the transduction of sound waves
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Amplitude
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-Volume (loudness)
-Above 85 dB can cause hearing damage |
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Frequency
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-Pitch (how high or low)
-Ability to hear high sounds decreases with age |
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Timbre
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The quality of sound
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Sound localization
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-The ability to locate objects in space
-Stereophonic hearing --Left & right ear receive slightly different info --Differences in loudness and timing --Hearing equivalent of vision’s retinal disparity |
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Haptic perception
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Our basic sense of touch (with our hands)
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Pain
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-Skin is differentially sensitive
-Response to various stimuli --Tissue damage or intense sensations -The importance of pain --Informs brain that body needs repair --Evolutionary necessity |
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Gate control theory of pain
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-Signals from pain receptors can be blocked (gated) by competing info at the spinal cord
-Physical stimulation from the body --Ice, massage -Stimulation from brain --Meditation |
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Vestibular Sense
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-Our awareness of balance and gravity
-Can be temporarily altered |
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Kinesthetic Sense
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-Body position and movement
--Catching and throwing a ball --Awareness of body without sight --Differentiating object weight |
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Olfaction (smell)
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-Only sense with direct pathways to the frontal lobe
-Suggests strong relation with abstract thinking |
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Smell
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-We can differentiate 10,000 odors
-Gender & age effects |
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Pheromones
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-Biochemical odors emitted by members of a species that influence behavior or physiology
--Parents and children recognize smells --Hypothalamus activation in response to sex-based hormones |
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Gustation (taste)
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-Taste buds (papilae)
--Also on roof/back of mouth --10,000 taste buds --Replaced every few days --We lose half by age 20 --No taste bud “map” -5 primary tastes --Salt, sour, bitter, sweet & umami (a somewhat savory/protein rich/high fat sensation) -Combines with smell to provide flavor |
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Parapsychology
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-The “study” of ESP and other paranormal phenomena
-Extra Sensory Perception --Perception of stimuli outside normal sensory abilities --Telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, telekinesis -No scientific evidence for any ESP |
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Perceptual Set
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--Expectations that create a tendency to interpret sensory information in a biased way
--e.g., we can’t tickle ourselves, placebo effect |
