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290 Cards in this Set

  • Front
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American Psychological Association
The major professional organization of psychologists in the United States.
applied research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
basic research
Pure science that sims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
behaviorism
The view that psychology:
(1) should be an objective science that
(2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
clinical psychology
Area of specialization involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems.
cognitive psychology
Approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which organisms process information. Investigates processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and creativity.
Educational psychology
Field of specialization in psychology concerned with the study and application of learning and teaching methods, focusing on areas such as improving educational curricula and training teachers.
Engineering psychology
Field of specialization concerned with creating optimal relationships among people, the machines they operate, and the environments they work in. Sometimes called human factors psychology.
Environmental psychology
Field of specialization concerned with assessing the effects on behavior of environmental factors such as noise, pollution, or overcrowding.
Experimental psychology
Field of specialization in which the primary activity is conducting research.
empiricism
The view that (1) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (2) science flourishes through observation and experimentation.
Forensic psychology
Field of specialization that works with the legal, court, and correctional systems to develop personality profiles of criminals, make decisions about disposition of convicted offenders, and help law enforcers understand behavioral problems.
Functionalism
Historical approach to psychology that emphasized the functional, practical nature of the mind. Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection, functionalists attempted to learn how mental processes, such as learning, thinking, and perceiving,helped the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Health psychology
Area of specialization concerned with the interaction between behavioral factors and physical health.
humanistic psychology
Approach to psychology that emphasizes the role of free choice and our ability to make conscious rational decisions about how we live our lives.
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology
Field of specialization concerned with using psychological concepts to make the workplace a more satisfying environment for employees and management.
Introspection
A research technique that involves careful observation of one's own reactions to a stimulus. Historically associated with Structuralism.
psychiatry
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medication as well as psychological therapy.
psychology
The scientific study of the over behavior and internal mental processes (thoughts and emotions) of humans and other animals.
Quantitative psychology
Field of specialization that uses mathematical techniques and computer science to aid in understanding human behavior.
School psychology
Field of specialization concerned with evaluating and resolving learning and emotional problems.
Structuralism
Historical approach to psychoogy that attempted to break down experience into its basic elements or structures, using a technique called introspection, in which subjects report their perceptual experiences.
nature-nurture issue
The longstanding question of the relative contributions of genetic endowment (nature) and experience (nurture) to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
case study
A research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
critical thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
dependent variable
The experimental factor (in psychology, the behavior or mental process) that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
double-blind procedure
An experiment procedure in which both the research subjects and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about which subjects have received the treatment or a placebo.
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors.
experimental condition
The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control condition
The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the treatment.
hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
hypothetical construct
An explanatory variable which is not directly observable, rather it is inferred from measurable behaviors. For example, the concepts of intelligence and motivation are used to explain phenomena in psychology, but neither as directly observable.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
naturalistic observation
The research method of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations, such as a subject's home or school environment, without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
operational definition
Definition specifying the characteristics that are used to measure or observe a variable. Precise statements of the procedures (operations) used to define independent and dependent variables, such as a definition of obesity specifying a certain weight-height relationship.
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Portion of the nervous system that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system. Consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
population
All the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for study. (except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population).
random assignment
Researchers randomly assign research participants to the experimental and control conditions of experiments in order to minimize any preexisting differences between the groups.
random sample
Sample group of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures. A random sample differs from a representative sample.
representative sample
Sample in which critical sub-groups are represented according to their incidence in the larger population that the researcher is studying.
sample
Selected segment of a larger population that is being studied in psychological research. Two kinds of samples are the representative sample and the random sample.
scientific method
Careful observation of events in the world, the formation of predictions based on these observations, and the testing of these predictions by manipulation of variables and/or systematic observation.
survey
Research method in which a representative sample of people are questioned about their behaviors or attitudes. It provides descriptive information.
theory
A tentative logical framework to explain the facts scientists have observed regarding certain phenomena.
third variable problem
A weakness in correlational studies caused by the fact that a correlation between any two variables may be caused by an unknown third variable.
cross-sectional study
A research method in which representative samples of people of different ages are compared with one another.
longitudinal study
A research method in which the same people are restudied and retested at different times over many years.
observer bias
Tendency of an observer to read more into a situation than is actually there or to see what he or she expects to see. It is a potential limitation of the observational method.
action potential
A neural impulse generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. A brief electrical charge that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters. See also resting potential, graded potential.
Neuron Threshold (all-or none law)
The level of stimulation that must be exceeded in order for a neuron to fire, or generate an electrical impulse. An action potential
will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. The neuron either fires or it
doesn't fire; the strength of the electrical impulse does not vary according to the degree of stimulation.
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
Consists of the sympathetic nervous system (which arouses tne body) and the parasympathetic nervous system (which calms the
body).
Axon
The extension of a neuron that transmits an impulse from the cell body to the terminal buttons on the tip of the axon.
Cell body (soma)
The largest part of a neuron, containing the nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions.
Central nervous system (CNS)
The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
Dendrites
Branchlike extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons and conducting
impulses toward the cell body.
Graded potential
Voltage change in a neuron’s dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron or neurons.
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are produced in one gland and circulate through the bloodstream to their target tissues in other glands.
Motor neuron
Neuron that transmits messages from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Neuron
Type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. Typically consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. They
transmit messages to other neurons and to glands and muscles throughout the body.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messenger that transmits an impulse across the synaptic gap from one neuron to another.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning the body to normal from emergency
responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system.
Resting potential
State in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside
environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron.
Synapse
Includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal
between neurons.
Synaptic facilitation
An increase in the size of a postsynaptic potential to a weak stimulus resulting from tonal changes that underlie learning and
memory.
Synaptic gap
The miniscule space between neurons, approximately five-millionths of an inch across.
Terminal buttons
Bulb-like structure on the end of a neuron's axon that releases neurotransmitters.
Association areas/ association cortex
The largest portion of the cerebral cortex (about 75 percent), involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as
processing higher functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Auditory cortex
Region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the
sound of human speech.
Broca's area
Region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech.
Cerebellum
The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
Cerebral cortex
Thin outer layer that covers the cerebral hemispheres that is the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Frontal lobe
Largest, foremost lobe in the cerebral cortex of the brain lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle
movements and in making plans and judgments.
Motor cortex
Region of the cerebral cortex at the rear of the frontal lobes that transmits messages to muscles; controls virtually all voluntary body
movements.
Occipital lobe
Region of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that consists primarily of the visual cortex.
Parietal lobe
Region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. It contains the
somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by the somatosensory cortex.
Plasticity
The brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in
experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.
Sensory neuron
Neuron or nerve cell that carries messages to the CNS from receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes, and other receptor organs.
Also known as afferent neuron.
Sensory cortex
Area of the parietal lobe, directly across from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch,
pressure, pain, temperature, and body position.
Temporal lobe
Region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex and whose primary function is
hearing.
Visual cortex
Portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the eyes into electrical patterns that the brain
translates into vision.
Wernicke's area
Area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech.
Behavior genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
Evolutionary psychology
The study of understanding the origins of behavior using the principles of natural selection.
Genotype
The assortment of genes that each individual inherits at conception.
Phenotype
Characteristics that result from the expression of various genotypes (for instance, brown eyes or blond hair).
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to
the next.
Gender role
Set of behaviors that is considered normal and appropriate for males and for females in a society.
Reflex
A simple, automatic, inborn response to a specific stimulus. Examples are the rooting reflex and an eye blink to a puff of air.
Developmental psychology
Field of specialization in psychology concerned with factors that influence development and shape behavior throughout the life
cycle, from conception to childhood, through old age.
Accommodation
In Piaget's theory, adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Assimilation
In Piaget’s theory, the process by which individuals interpret new information in accordance with existing knowledge or schemas.
Attachment
Intense emotional tie between two individuals, shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress
on separation.
Basic trust
According to Erik Erikson's 8-stage theory of psychosocial development, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy;
said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.
Concrete operations stage
Third stage of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory (ages 7 through 12), during which children begin to use logical mental
operations or rules, mastering the concept of conservation.
Conservation
The understanding that changing the form of an object does not necessarily change its essential character. A key achievement in
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. See also Concrete operations stage.
Critical periods
Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences
in order for normal development to take place.
Egocentrism
In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s inability to take another’s point of view.
Formal-operations stage
Fourth and final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (ages 12+), during which individuals acquire the ability to make
complex deductions and solve problems by systematically testing hypotheses.
Imprinting
Process by which certain infant animals, such as ducklings, learn to follow or approach the first moving object they see. See also
critical periods.
Maturation
Orderly unfolding of certain patterns of behavior, such as language acquisition or walking, in accordance with genetic blueprints.
Object permanence
Realization that objects continue to exist even when they are not in view. In Piaget’s Theory, this awareness is considered as a
key achievement of the sensorimotor stage of development.
Preoperational stage
According to Piaget, the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 12). Preoperational children can develop only
limited concepts, and they are unable to evaluate simultaneously more than one physical dimension. See also egocentrism .
Schemas
In reference to memory, conceptual frameworks that individuals use to make sense out of stored information. In Piaget’s theory,
the mental structures we form to assimilate and organize processed information.
Sensorimotor stage
In Piaget’s theory, the period of development between birth and about age two during which infants learn about their worlds
primarily through their senses and actions.
Absolute threshold
The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
Difference threshold
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold
as a just noticeable difference. Also called "just noticeable difference" or JND.
Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting our sensations, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
Synesthesia
A condition in which one type of sensory stimulation evokes the sensation of another. For example, the hearing of a sound
produces the visualization of a color.
Transduction
Process by which sensory organs transform mechanical, chemical, or light energy into the electrochemical energy that is generated
by neurons firing.
Binocular cues
Distance (depth) cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes.
Figure-ground
The organization of the visual field into objects ("figures") that stand out from their surroundings ("ground"); similar to the forgroundbackground
distinction.
Depth perception
The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge
distance.
Gestalt psychology
Approach to psychology that argues that the whole of an experience is different from the sum of its parts. This is an
active force in current investigations of perceptual processes and learning as well as therapy, where it emphasizes the whole.
Monocular cues
Distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone.
Perceptual grouping
The tendency to organize patterns of stimuli into larger units according to proximity, similarity, and good continuation.
Perceptual constancy
The process of perceiving an object as unchanging even though the stimuli we receive from it change. Accounts for our ability to
recognize a familiar object without being deceived by changes in its size, shape, brightness, or color.
Proximity
A perceptual grouping principle in which, all else being equal, we tend to organize perceptions by grouping elements that are the
nearest to each other.
Selective attention
The process of focusing on one or a few stimuli of particular significance while ignoring others. Sometimes referred to as the
"cocktail party effect."
Selective perception
A form of perceptual set. The tendency to perceive stimuli that are consistent with expectations and to ignore those that are
inconsistent.
Shape constancy
An element of perceptual constancy. We perceive objects as maintaining the same shape even though their retinal images
change when we view them from different angles
Similarity
In perception, the principle that we tend to group elements that are similar to each other. In social psychology, similarity of beliefs,
interests, and values is recognized as a factor attracting people to one another.
Size constancy
One form of perceptual constancy. Although the retinal image of an object becomes smaller as the object recedes into the
distance (or larger as it approaches), the viewer adjusts for this change and perceives the object to be constant in size.
Visual cliff
Device that produces the illusion of a cliff, allowing researchers to test the ability of humans and animals to perceive and respond to
depth cues.
Extrasensory perception
The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and
precognition.
Perceptual set
Our mental predisposition that influences what we perceive. Includes our assumptions, biases, and expectations.
Consciousness
State of awareness or alertness to processes that are going on inside or outside one’s own body.
NREM sleep (Non-rapid eye movement sleep)
Stages of sleep during which rapid eye movements typically do not occur. Dreaming occurs far less frequently during this sleep.
REM sleep
State of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and often associated with dreaming.
Sleep
Natural, periodically occurring altered state of consciousness, characterized by reduced activity, lessened responsiveness to
stimuli, and distinctive brain-wave patterns.
Stage 1 sleep
Light sleep that occurs just after dozing off.
Stage 2 sleep
Stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 1 sleep, characterized by brief bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles.
Stage 3 sleep
Stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 2 sleep, during which there are virtually no eye movements.
Stage 4 sleep
Deepest level of sleep following Stage 3, during which there are virtually no eye movements.
Hypnosis
State of altered consciousness characterized by a deep relaxation and detachment as well as heightened suggestibility to the
hypnotist’s directives.
Acquisition
In classical conditioning the initial process of learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the
neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of learning to associate responses with
their consequences (either reinforcing or punishing).
Associative learning
Learning by making a connection or association between two events, through either classical conditioning or operant conditioning .
Classical conditioning
A type of learning by temporal association in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus, called the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS), that naturally elicits a certain response, called the unconditioned response (UCR). After repeated
pairings the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and evokes the same or a similar response, now called the
conditioned response (CR).
Conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response only after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Continuous reinforcement schedule
In operant conditioning , the presentation of a reinforcer for each occurrence of a specific behavior. Reinforcing the desired
response every time it occurs.
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the process by which a conditioned response is eliminated through repeated presentation of the
conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of eliminating a response by
discontinuing reinforcement.
Generalization, stimulus
Process by which, once a response has been conditioned, an organism responds in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the
conditioned stimulus.
Learning
A relatively enduring change in potential behavior that results from experience.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned response or reflex caused by a stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a natural (unlearned) response or reflex.
Aversive conditioning
A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking
alcohol).
Avoidance conditioning
In operant conditioning, the learning of a response to a discriminative stimulus that allows an organism to avoid exposure to an
aversive stimulus.
Cognitive map
Mental representations of the relationship between events or spatial elements.
Conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties after being associated with a primary reinforcer or other secondary reinforcer. See
Secondary reinforcer.
Discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that controls a response by signaling the availability of reinforcement.
Escape conditioning
In operant conditioning, learning that takes place when an organism performs a response that will terminate an aversive stimulus.
Fixed interval (FI) schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning wherein reinforcement is provided for the first response after a specified
period of time has elapsed.
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning wherein reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.
Latent learning
Learning that is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior.
Law of effect
Theory originally proposed by Edward Thorndike that is the foundation of the operant condi-tioning theory: Behavior followed by
reinforcement will be strengthened while behavior followed by punishment will be weakened.
Negative reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any stimulus that increases the probability of a response through its removal. For example, when a rat
pressing a lever (operant behavior) results in stopping an electrical shock, or when you pound on your neighbor's wall (operant
behavior) results in the termination of loud noise in the neighbor's room.
Operant conditioning
A process of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows it – for example, behavior that is followed by
reinforcement is likely to be repeated. An organism learns to associate its own behavior with consequences.
Partial reinforcement schedule
In operant conditioning, a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time -- for example, a ratio or interval schedule.
Behaviors that are acquired on partial instead of continuous reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but
are much more resistant to extintion.
Positive reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of the response.
Primary reinforcer
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive or need (such as hunger, thirst, or sleep).
Punishment
A procedure in which the presentation of a stimulus following a response leads to a decrease in the strength or frequency of the
response.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any procedure where an event following a specific response increases the probability that the response will
occur.
Reinforcer
In operant conditioning, any response contingent event that leads to an increase in the probability, or strength, of the response.
Schedule of reinforcement
The rule that determines the relationship between responses and reinforcement.
Second order conditioning
A learned association between two conditioned stimuli (CS2—CS1) that can occur following conditioning to CS1 and an
unconditioned stimulus (US).
Secondary reinforcer
Stimulus that acts as a reinforcer by virtue of its association with one or more primary reinforcers or other selves.
Also known as a conditioned reinforcer.
Shaping
In operant conditioning, a technique (also called successive approximation) in which responses that are increasingly similar to
the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs.
Spontaneous recovery
In classical conditioning, the spontaneous reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place.
Variable interval (VI) schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals.
Variable ration (VR) schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is provided after an average of a specific number of
responses occur.
Modeling
Learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior. Also known as
observational learning .
Observational learning
Learning by observing others. Also referred to as modeling.
Social learning theory
Theory that emphasizes the role of observation in learning.
Acronym
Meaningful arrangement of letters that provides a cue for recalling information; a mnemonic device.
Acrostics
Sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific information; a mnemonic device .
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word
meanings.
Chunking
Process of grouping items into longer meaningful units to make them easier to remember.
Clustering
Mnemonic device involving grouping items into categories.
Elaborative rehearsal
System for remembering that involves using mnemonic devices; it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal.
Encoding
In memory, the process of perceiving information, then categorizing or organizing it in a meaningful way so that it can be more
easily stored and recalled.
Flashbulb memory
An apparent vivid recall for an event associated with extreme emotion or uniqueness, such as the assassination of a president or
the destruction of the World Trade Center.
Maintenance rehearsal
System for remembering that involves repeatedly rehearsing information without at-tempting to find meaning in it.
Mood-congruent (state-dependent) memory
Phenomenon wherein recall of particular events, experiences, or information is aided by the subject being in the same context or
physiological state in which the information was first encoded. The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s
current good or bad mood.
Sensory memory
First system in the three-system model of memory, in which brief impressions from any of the senses are stored fleetingly,
disappearing within a few seconds if they are not transferred to short-term memory.
Short-term memory (STM)
Immediate recollection of stimuli that have just been perceived; unless it is transferred to long-term memory, information in this
memory system is usually retained only momentarily. Also called working memory.
Storage
Process by which encoded material is retained over time in memory.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
How memories are recorded in the brain. An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a
neural basis for learning and memory.
Declarative memory
Recall of specific facts, such as information read in a book.
Long-term memory (LTM)
The third memory system in the three-system model of memory. Information transferred from short-term to long-term memory may
be stored for periods of time from minutes to years.
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Mnemonic device
Memory system, such as clustering or acrostics, that organizes material in a meaningful way to make it easier to remember.
Primacy effect
Term used to describe the phenomenon that the first information we receive about a person often has the greatest influence on our
perceptions of that person.
Proactive interference
In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when earlier learning disrupts memory for later learning.
Procedural memory
Recall for how to perform skills such as bicycle riding or swimming.
Retrieval
Process by which information stored in memory is accessed.
Retroactive interference
In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when a later event interferes with the recall of earlier information.
Serial position effect
Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.
General intelligence (g-factor)
One of the two factors in Charles Spearman’s conceptualization of intelligence that underlies specific mental abilities and is
therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
Intelligence
A hypothetical construct which is operationally defined as what intelligence tests measure. The construct is commonly
understood to include the abilities to think rationally and abstractly, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment.
Myers' definition: The mental abilities needed to select, adapt to, and shape environments. It involves the abilities to profit from
experience, solve problems, reason, and successfully meet challenges and achieve goals.
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
A measurement of intelligence derived by dividing an individual’s mental age by the chronological age, then multiplying by 100.
Mental age
In IQ testing, the chronological age of children who on the average receive a test score similar to that of the subject. For instance, a
six year old whose composite score is equivalent to that of a nine year old has a mental age of nine.
Norm
Standard that reflects the normal or average performance of a particular group of people on a measure such as an IQ test.
Primary mental abilities
In L. L. Thurstone’s theory of the structure of intelligence, the separate and measurable attributes (for instance, numerical
ability) that make up intelligence.
Reliability
In testing, the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test,
on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.
Standardization
(1) Uniform and consistent procedures for administering and scoring tests (such as IQ or personality tests) and (2) defining
meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group."
Validity
In testing, the ability of a test to measure accurately what it is supposed to measure.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Intelligence test developed by David Wechsler with verbal and performance sub-tests grouped by aptitude rather than age level.
Drive-reduction theory
The idea that a physiological need, such as hunger or thirst, creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism
to satisfy the need.
Incentive
Any external stimulus that can motivate behavior even when no internal drive state exists.
Instincts
Innate patterns of behavior that occur in every normally functioning member of a species under certain set conditions.
Motivation
Any condition, such as a need or desire, that energizes and directs behavior
Arousal theory / Sensation-seeking motive
One of the theories of motivation that states that we need certain levels of stimulation, and we are driven to explore our
environment and the need for sensory stimulation.
Achievement motivation
A desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard.
Need for achievement (nAch)
Complex psychosocial motive to accomplish difficult goals, attain high standards, surpass the achievements of others, and increase
self-regard by succeeding in exercising talent.
Cannon-Bard theory
The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience
of emotion.
Emotions
An individual’s subjective feelings and moods. The term applies to both physiological and behavioral responses involving (1)
physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
James-Lange theory
The theory that explains emotional states (such as fear) resulting from an organism’s awareness of bodily responses to a situation,
rather than from cognitions about that situation.
Two-factor theory
A theory of how we experience emotion that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the
arousal.
Anal stage
In Freud's theory of psychosexual development, the period between about 18 -36 months, during which the pleasure zone shifts
from the mouth to bladder and bowel elimination; coping with demands for control.
Defense mechanisms
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious process that shields the ego from anxiety by denying or distorting reality.
Ego
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the component of personality that acts as an intermediary between the instinctual demands of
the id and the reality of the real world.
Fixation
In Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, arrested development that results from exposure to either too little or too much
gratification.
Genital stage
Fifth and final stage in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, beginning with puberty, during which sexual feelings that
were dormant during the latency stage reemerge; maturation of sexual interests.
Id
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the biological component of personality consisting of life instincts and death instincts.
Latency period
Fourth stage of psychosexual development in Freud’s theory, extending from about age 6 to puberty, during which sexual drives
remain unexpressed or latent.
Latent content
In psychoanalytic theory, the hidden content of dreams, which Freud asserted was their true meaning.
Libido
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the energy that fuels the id and motivates all behavior.
Oedipus complex
In Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, the attraction a male child feels toward his mother (and jealousy toward his
father) during the phallic stage.
Oral stage
According to Freud, the first stage of psychosexual development spanning birth through 18 months, during which the lips and
mouth are the primary pleasure areas; focus on sucking, biting, chewing.
Personality
The relatively enduring, distinctive patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that characterize an individual’s adaptations to his
or her life.
Phallic stage
According to Freud, the third phase of psychosexual development, spanning age 3 - 6, during which the focus of sexual
gratification is genital stimulation; coping with incestual sexual feelings.
Pleasure principle
According to Freud, the principle guiding the id that seeks immediate gratification of all instinctive drives regardless of reason,
logic, or the possible impact of behaviors
Projection
Defense mechanism in which an individual reduces anxiety created by unacceptable impulses by attributing those impulses to
someone else.
Psychosexual development
According to Freud’s perspective, stages of development in which the focus of sexual gratifica-tion shifts from one body site to
another.
Reality principle
According to Freud, the tendency to behave in ways that are consistent with reality. The reality principle governs the ego.
Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the primary defense mechanism by which ideas, feelings, or memories that are too painful to deal with
on a conscious level are banished to the unconscious.
Rorschach inkblot test
Commonly used projective test in which the subject is asked to examine inkblots and say what they look like or bring to mind.
Superego
According to Freud, the third system of personality that consists of an individual’s conscience as well as the ego-ideal (the ‘shoulds’
of behavior).
Unconscious
According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that are repressed and
unavailable to conscious awareness. According to contemporary psychologists, the term refers to information processing of which
we are unaware.
Extroversion
Personality trait manifested by sociability; friendliness, and interest in people and events in the external world.
Introversion
Personality trait expressed as shyness, reclusiveness, and preoccupation with the inner world of thoughts, memories, and feelings.
Reciprocal determinism
According to Albert Bandura, the principle that individual behaviors and thus personalities are shaped by the interaction between
cognitive factors and environmental factors.
Collective unconscious
In Carl Jung’s theory, a kind of universal memory bank that contains all the ancestral memories, images, symbols, and ideas that
humans have accumulated throughout their evolvement.
Collectivism
Giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.
Learned helplessness
A response produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive stimuli. Characterized by the inability to learn an avoidance response.
Abnormal behavior
Behavior that is atypical, maladaptive, dysfunctional, socially unacceptable, and produces emotional distress.
Neurosis
Term originally used by Freud to describe anxiety disorders, and widely used until publication of DSM-III to describe a range of
disorders that are distressing and often debilitating, but are not characterized by a loss of contact with reality.
Anxiety disorders
A group of psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.
Generalized anxiety disorder
An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.
Phobia
Any of a number of anxiety disorders that are characterized by a persistent fear of and consequent avoidance of a specific object or
situation.
Bipolar disorder
Mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania (highly energized behavior).
Major depressive disorder
Type of mood disorder characterized by deep and persistent depression.
Delusion
A disorder of thought content and presence of a rigidly held belief that is a misrepresentation of reality.
Hallucination
False perception that lacks a sensory basis. Can be produced by hallucinogenic drugs, fatigue, or sensory deprivation. Often
associated with severe psychotic disorders.
Split-brain research
Surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres, specifically the
independent functioining of the two hemispheres.
Behavior therapy
Therapy based on the assumption that maladaptive behavior has been learned and can therefore be unlearned.
Free association
Psychoanalytic technique developed by Sigmund Freud in which patients relax and say whatever comes to their minds.
Psychoanalytic approach
Approach to psychology developed by Freud that emphasizes the dynamics among the three forces of personality, the id, ego, and
superego; the importance of defense mechanisms; and the importance of dreams as the "royal road" to the unconscious.
Psychotherapy
Any psychological technique or procedure designed to deal with abnormal behavior and improve a person’s adjustment to life.
Attitude
Any learned, relatively enduring predisposition to respond in consistently favorable or unfavorable ways to certain people, groups,
ideas, or situations.
Attribution theory
The theory that we attempt to make sense out of other people’s behavior by attributing it to either dispositional (internal) causes or
external (situational) causes.
Cognitive dissonance theory
Theory that people experience psychological discomfort or dissonance whenever two related cognitions or behaviors are in conflict.
Fundamental attribution error
When analyzing another person's behavior, the tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal) causes and to underestimate
situational (external) causes of their behavior.
Social psychology
Field of specialization concerned with understanding the impact of social environments and social processes on individuals.
Includes how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Compliance
Form of social influence in which people alter their behavior in response to direct requests from others, which usually involve a
degree of coercion.
Conformity
Tendency to modify behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people.
False consensus bias
Attribution bias caused by the assumption that most people share our own attitudes and behaviors.
Informational social influence
One basis of conformity, in which we accept a group’s beliefs or behaviors as providing accurate information about reality.
Normative social influence
Social influence in which we conform not because of an actual change in our beliefs, but because we think we will benefit in some
way (such as gaining approval)..
Obedience
Social influence in which we alter our behavior in response to commands or orders from people perceived as having power or
authority.
Social influence
The effects that others have on our feelings, beliefs, and behaviors.
Foot-in-the-door technique
Technique for encouraging compliance in which a person is first asked to agree to a relatively minor request that serves as a setup
for a more major request.
Correlation coefficient
A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.
Mean
In descriptive statistics, the arithmetic average obtained by adding scores and dividing by the number of scores.
Measure of central tendency
In descriptive statistics, a value that reflects the middle or central point of a distribution of scores. The three measures of central
tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.
Measure of variability
In descriptive statistics, a measure that indicates whether distribution scores are clustered closely around their average or widely
spread out. For example, there are the range and the standard deviation.
Median
In descriptive statistics, the score that falls in the middle of a distribution of numbers arranged from the lowest to the highest.
Mode
In descriptive statistics, the score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of numbers.
Normal distribution (normal curve)
In descriptive statistics, a distribution in which scores are distributed similarly on both sides of the middle value, so that they form a
symmetrical, bell-shaped curve when graphed. The areas under each side of the normal curve are 34%, 14%, 2%.
Percentile
The percent of scores in a distribution which fall at or below a particular score.
Range
In descriptive statistics, a measure of variability that indicates the difference between the highest and lowest scores.
Skewed distribution
In descriptive statistics, the term describes an unbalanced distribution of scores.
Standard deviation
In descriptive statistics, a measure of variability that indicates the average extent to which all the scores in a distribution vary from
the mean.
Statistical significance
Term used to describe research results in which changes in the dependent variable can be associated (with a high level of
confidence) to changes in the independent variable. Chance is ruled out as the explanation.
Statistics
Mathematical methods for organizing, summarizing, describing and interpreting data.
Variance
In descriptive statistics, a measure of variability that is the average of the squared distances of the scores from the mean.