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201 Cards in this Set
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Psychology |
Scientific study of mind and behavior |
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Mind |
Our private inner experience (perceptions, thoughts, memories, feelings) |
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Behavior |
"Observable" actions of human beings and nonhuman animals |
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Nativism |
The philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn |
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Philosophical empiricism |
The philosophical view that all knowledge is acquired through experience |
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Rene Descartes |
Psychologist. Stated that the mind and the body are separate (dualism) |
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dualism |
Belief that the mind and body are separate entites |
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Phrenology |
a defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics are localized in specific regions of the brain and these can be determined from bumps or indentations in the skull |
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Pierre Flourens |
Psychologist. Surgically removed brain pieces; argued against Gall's methods; first to prove that the mind was located in the brain, not the heart |
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Paul Broca |
Psychologist. Studied brain damaged patients (left frontal lobe) to link localization to ability |
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Physiology |
The study of biological processes, especially in the human body |
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Hermann von Helmholtz |
Psychologist. Studied human reaction time; estimated the length of nerve impulse |
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Stimulus |
Sensory input from the environment |
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Reaction time |
The amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus |
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Wilhelm Wundt |
Psychologist. Opened first psychological laboratory |
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Consciousness |
A person's subjective experience to the world and the mind |
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Structuralism |
The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind |
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Introspection |
The subjective observation of one's own experience |
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William James |
Psychologist. First to take scientific approach to study Psychology; wrote The Principles of Psychology |
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Functionalism |
The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment |
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Charles Darwin |
Psychologist. Wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection; coined Natural Selection |
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Natural selection |
The features of an organism that helps it survive and reproduce are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations |
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G. Stanley Hall |
Psychologist. Set up first psychological laboratory in North America; focused on development and education. Founded the American Journal of Psychology |
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Rehearsal |
Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it |
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Jean-Martin Charcot and Pierre Janet |
Psychologists. Studied hysteric patients through hyponosis |
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Hysteria |
A temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences |
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Sigmund Freud |
Psychologist. Founded psychoanalytic theory |
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Unconscious |
The part of the mind that operates outside of awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions |
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Psychoanalytic theory |
Approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors |
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Psychoanalysis |
A therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders |
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Carl Jung and Alfred Alder |
Psychologists. Followed but broke away from Freud |
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Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers |
Psychologists. Pioneered the Humanistic approach to Psychology |
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Humanistic psychology |
An approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings |
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Behaviorism |
An approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior; helped psychology advance as a science |
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John Watson |
Psychologist. Goal to predict and control behavior through the study of observable behavior |
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Margaret Washburn |
Psychologist. Studied behavior in different animal species; published The Animal Mind |
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Ivan Pavlov |
Psychologist. Studied the physiology of digestion and founded classical conditioning (stimulus-response) |
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Response |
An action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus |
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B.F. Skinner |
Psychologist. Developed the "Skinner box" or conditioning chamber to explain learning, and founded operant conditioning; believed free will an illusion |
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Cognitive psychology |
The scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning |
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Illusions |
Errors of perception, memory, or judgement in which subjective experience differs from objective reality |
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Gestalt psychology |
A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of parts |
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Max Wertheimer |
Psychologist. Founded induced motion phenomena |
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Sir Frederic Bartlett |
Psychologist. Discovered that memory recall is flawed experience; people often remember what should have happened or what they expected to happen rather than what actually did happen |
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Karl Lashley |
Psychologist. Lesioned rats' brains to unsuccessfully localize learning; lead to physiological psychology |
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Behavioral neuroscience |
An approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes |
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Cognitive neuroscience |
A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity |
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Evolutionary psychology |
A psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection; influenced by Darwin, James, and E. O Wilson |
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Social psychology |
A subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior |
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Cultural psychology |
The study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members |
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Absolutionism |
Culture makes little difference on psychology |
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Relativism |
Psychological phenomena are likely to vary considerably across cultures |
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Clinical psychology |
Study of the treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and the promotion of psychological health |
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Health psychology |
Study of the role that psychological factors play in regard to physical health and illness |
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Educational psychology |
Study of how students learn, the effectiveness of particular teaching techniques, the social psychology of schools, and the psychology of teaching |
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Industrial/organizational psychology |
Applies a broad array of psychological concepts and questions to work settings and problems |
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Sports psychology |
Examines the psychological factors in sports and exercise |
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Forensic psychology |
Field that blends psychology, law, and criminal justice |
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Developmental psychology |
Study of how thought and behavior change and remain stable across the life span |
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Behavorial neuroscience |
Study of the links among brain, mind, and behavior (cognition and emotion) |
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Biological psychology |
Study of the relationship between bodily systems and chemicals and how they influence behavior and thought |
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Empiricism |
Belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation |
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Scientific Method |
Set of principles about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence |
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Theory |
A hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomena |
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Hypothesis |
A falsifiable prediction made by a theory |
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Empirical method |
A set of rules and techniques for observation |
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Observe |
Use one's senses to learn about the properties of an event or an object |
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Operational definition |
A description of a property in concrete, measurable terms |
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Measure |
A device that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers |
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Validity |
The extent to which a measurement and a property are conceptually related |
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Reliability |
The tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing |
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Demand characteristics |
Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should |
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Observer bias |
Expectations can influence observations and influence perceptions of reality |
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Double-blind |
An observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed (used in experiments) |
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Naturalistic Observation |
A technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments |
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Normal distribution |
Mathematically defined frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the middle |
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Non-normal distribution |
Mathematically defined frequency distribution in which most measurements are skewed to one side of the middle |
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Correlation |
When variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other |
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Experiment |
A technique for establishing the casual relationships between variables |
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Manipulation |
The creation of an artificial patter of variation in a variable in order to determine its casual powers |
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Independent variable |
The variable that is manipulated in an experiment |
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Dependent variable |
The variable that is measure in a study |
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Statistical significance |
The probability that the difference or relationship happened by chance, determined through inferential statistics |
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Internal validity |
Characteristics of an experiment that established the casual relationship between variables |
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External validity |
Property of an experiment in which the variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way |
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Critical thinking |
Involves asking tough questions about whether evidence has been interpreted in an unbiased way, and about whether the evidence tells not just the truth, but the whole truth |
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Code of ethics |
Respect for persons, research should be beneficent, research should be just. Standards that psychologists have to follow for experiments |
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Neurons |
Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks |
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Soma (cell body) |
The part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive |
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Dendrite |
The part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body |
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Axon |
The part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands Long projection that extends from the soma Transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron and stimulates the release of neurotransmitters |
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Myelin sheath |
Some axons are wrapped in this fatty substance which insulates them and makes the nerve impulse travel more efficiently |
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Synapse |
The junction between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon or cell body of another |
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Sensory neurons |
Neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord |
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Motor neurons |
Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement |
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Interneurons |
Neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons |
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Mirror neurons |
Neurons that are activated when an organism engages in a behavior or observes another engage in that behavior (innate empathy) |
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Resting potential |
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane |
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Action potential |
An electric signal that is conducted along a neuron's axon to a synapse |
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Refractory period |
The span of time, after an action potential has been generated, when the neuron is returning resting state and the neuron cannot generate an action potential |
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All-or-none principle |
The action potential of a neuron always fires at the same intensity A cell either fires or it doesn't: no halfway |
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Nodes of Ranvier |
Breaks in the myelin sheath |
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Terminal buttons of axon |
Little knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters called vesicles |
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Neurotransmitters |
Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites |
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Receptors |
Parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and initiate or prevent a new electric signal |
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Agonists |
Drugs that increase (mimic) the action of a neurotransmitter |
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Antagonists |
Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter |
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Nervous system |
An interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body |
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Central nervous system (CNS) |
Composed of the brain and the spinal cord |
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
Connects the CNS to the body's organs and muscles |
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Somatic nervous system |
Conveys information into and out of the CNS |
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Autonomic nervous system (ANS) |
Carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs and glands |
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Sympathetic nervous system |
Prepares the body for action in threatening situations ("fight or flight") |
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Parasympathetic nervous system |
Helps the body return to a normal resting state ("rest and digest") |
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Refactory period |
The span of time, after an action potential has been generated, when the neuron is returning resting state and the neuron cannot generate an action potential |
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Acetylcholine (ACh) |
Neurotransmitter. Involved in a number of functions including voluntary motor control |
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Dopamine (DA) |
Neurotransmitter. Regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal |
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Gluatamate |
Neurotransmitter. Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission throughout the brain |
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GABA |
Neurotransmitter. Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain |
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Norepinephrine (NE) |
Neurotransmitter. Influences mood and arousal |
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Serotonin (5-HT) |
Neurotransmitter. Involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behavior |
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Endorphins |
Neurotransmitter. Chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain. Morphine within |
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Hindbrain |
One major division of the brain. Coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord, and controls the basic functions of life. Includes the medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum and pons |
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Midbrain |
One major division of the brain. Important for orientation and movement. Includes tectum and tegmentum |
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Forebrain |
One major division of the brain. Highest level of brain; critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions. Includes cerebral cortex, and subcortical structures. |
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Medulla |
Extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, respiration, etc. |
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Reticular formation |
A brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal |
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Cerebellum |
A large structure that controls fine motor skills |
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Pons |
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain |
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Tectum |
Orients organism to environment |
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Tegmentum |
Involved in movement and arousal |
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Thalamus |
Relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex |
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Hypothalamus |
Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior |
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Amygdala |
Plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories |
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Hippocampus |
Critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex |
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Pituitary gland |
The "master gland" of the body's hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the function of many other glands in the body |
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Basal ganglia |
Set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movement Receive input from the cerebral cortex and send output to the motor centers of the brain stem |
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Cerebral cortex |
Largest part of the brain with four lobes per hemisphere: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and Temporal |
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Frontal lobe |
Lobe. Has specialized ares for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment |
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Parietal lobe |
Lobe. Processes information about touch |
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Occipital lobe |
Lobe. Processes visual information |
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Temporal lobe |
Lobe. Responsible for hearing and language |
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Wernicke's area |
Part of the brain specialized in language comprehension |
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Broca's area |
Part of the brain specialized in language production |
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Electroencephalography (EEG) |
A device used to record electrical activity in the brain Shows when brain activity occurs but not exactly where |
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Association areas |
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex |
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Corpus callosum |
A thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
Uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the structure of the human brain and other soft tissues Shows where but not when |
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Functional MRI (fMRI) |
Variation on MRI, tells about brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow Shows where AND when |
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET) |
Involves injecting patient with "harmless" radioactive form of: oxygen (for blood flow) glucose (metabolism) other label of interest |
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Sensation |
Simple stimulation of a sense organs (by features of the outer world) |
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Perception |
The organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation |
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Transduction |
What takes place when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into encoded neural signals sent to the central nervous system |
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synesthesia |
The perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense |
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Psychophysics |
Methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus |
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Absolute threshold |
The minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus |
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Sensory adaptation |
Sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions |
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Visual acuity |
The ability to see fine detail |
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Human eye |
Light passes through the cornea, to the pupil (iris surrounding), to the lens, and to the retina (light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball: phototransduction) |
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Accommodation |
The process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina |
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Cones |
Photoreceptor cells. Detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow us to focus on fine detail |
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Rods |
Photoreceptor cells. Become active under low-light conditions for night vision |
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Fovea |
An area of the retina where vision is the clearest and there are no rods at all (only cones) |
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Blind spot |
A location in the visual field that produces no sensation on the retina because the corresponding area of the retina contains neither rods nor cones and therefore has no mechanism to sense light |
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Receptive field |
The region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron |
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Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) |
Will respond to light falling anywhere within a small patch (receptive field) |
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Color-opponent system |
Pairs of visual neurons that work in opposition |
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Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) |
Part of the thalamus involved in visual processing |
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V1 |
Part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex |
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Single-neuron feature detectors |
Neurons that respond to specific orientations of edges |
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Gestalt |
An organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts. Includes closure, continuity, similarityq |
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Closure |
The Gestalt tendency to see a whole object even when complete information is not available |
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Continuity |
The Gestalt tendency to see points or lines in such a way that they follow a continuous path |
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Similarity |
The Gestalt tendency to group like objects together (color, shape, texture, lightness) |
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Monocular depth cues |
Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye |
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Linear perspective |
Monocular depth cues. Involves parallel lines that converge or come together the farther away they are from the viewer |
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Texture gradient |
Monocular depth cues. Causes the texture of a surface to appear more tightly packed together and dense as the surface moves to the background |
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Interposition |
Monocular depth cues. The partial blocking of objects farther away from the viewer by objects closer to the viewer. |
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Relative height |
Monocular depth cues. Objects closer to you are lower in your visual field, while faraway objects are higher |
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Binocular disparity (depth cues) |
The difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provide information about depth. |
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Area MT |
In the temporal lobe, the part of the visual system that senses motion, and encodes information about space and time |
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Apparent motion |
Illusion in motion. The perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations (phi phenomenon) |
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Inattentional blindness |
A failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention |
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Pinna |
Part of the outer ear. Collects and funnels sounds into your head |
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Auditory canal |
Part of the outer ear. Passage (tube) running from outer to inner ear |
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Tympanic membrane |
Part of the outer ear. Also known as eardrum. Vibrates in response to sound waves |
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Ossicles |
Part of the middle ear. Amplify the waves so they have more than 20x they energy they had entering the ear. Also known as hammer, anvil, and stirrup |
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Cochlea |
Part of the inner ear. A fluid-filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction |
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Hair cells |
Inside the cochlea. Specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane. Hair cells transduce sound vibrations into electrical impulses which may generate action potentials in the auditory nerve |
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Basilar membrane |
A structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid |
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Area A1 |
A portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex |
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Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) |
Area of the thalamus where the brain organizes and interprets sounds from the outside world. |
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Primary auditory cortex (A1) |
The destination for most information from the auditory system. |
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Cochlear implant |
An electronic device that replaces the function of hair cells |
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Somatosenses |
The body senses. There are four receptors that respond to pressure, texture, pattern, and vibration, and thermoreceptors that respond to temperature |
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Pain |
Indicates damage or potential damage to the body; tissue damage transduced by two receptors: A-delta fibers and C fibers |
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Referred pain |
Feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord |
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Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) |
Receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell. Groups of them send their axons to the olfactory bulb, a brain structure |
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Taste buds |
The organ of taste transduction. Five types of taste receptor cells whose tips (microvilli) react to tastant molecules: salt, sour, bitter, sweet, umami |
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Flavor |
Combination of smell and taste experiences |
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Vestibular system |
Three fluid-filled semicircular canal and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in each inner ear; used with visual feedback to maintain balance |
