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163 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How old is the earth?
When were the first fossils found? |
4.5 Billion Years
3.5 Billion years |
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Were the first plants autotrophic or heterotrophic?
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Heterotrophic. There were lots of organic matter present as a food source. Later, around 3.4 billion years ago, plants became autotrophs as a result of organic material being used up.
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Explain the history of the build-up of oxygen, and the transition from anaerobic to aerobic plant life.
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Phototrophs were the most successful autotrophs. Oxygen began building up as a byproduct of photosynthesis. Plants that were initially anaerobic became aerobic and utilized the oxygen. Aerobic plants began to grow/reproduce faster.
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How old are Eukaryotes?
How old are Land Plants? Why did plants move from the sea to the land? |
1.5 Billion years.
470 million years. Minerals in the water were reduced, so platns began to grow on land. |
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What is included in the kingdom viridiplantae?
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Includes green algae and all land plants.
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What two phyla are within the alga component of viridiplantae?
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Chlorophyta, Carophyta
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From which phyla did land plants evolve from?
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Carophyta, about 470 million years ago
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Phylum Carophyta:
What kinds of chlorophyll? Food reserve? Cell wall composition? Unicellular or multicellular? |
Chlorophyl A, B, Carotenoid.
Starch. Cellulose. Multicellular. |
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What are two orders of phylum Carophyta?
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Coleochaetales.
Charales. There are differing opinions on which order is more closely related to land plants. |
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What is a major group of land plants that is non-vascular, and how many species are there of them?
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Mosses and relatives: 25,000.
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What are three major types of vascular plants, and their characteristics?
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Seedless Vascular: Ferns and relatives (12,000)
Gymnosperms: Pines and Relatives (3,000). Angiosperms: (Magnoliphyta) Flowering plants (235,000) |
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Describe Xylem and Phloem.
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Vascular tissue.
Xylem: Transports water and minerals throughout the plant. Phloem: Living tissue that transports sugars throughout the plant. |
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What age do we live in?
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"The Age of the Angiosperms."
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Carboniferous Era:
How many years ago, dominant vegetation |
350 Million Years Ago, Club mosses and relatives were dominant vegetation.
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Triassic Era:
How many years ago, dominant vegetation |
200 million yeats ago, ferns and gymnosperms were dominant vegetation.
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Cretaceous Era: How many years ago, what type of plant began to evolve?
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140 million years ago, Angiosperms began to evolve
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When did Angiosperms become the dominant vegetation?
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100 million years ago
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Describe the origins and composition of fossil fuels.
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Fossil fuels come from club mosses and things that became extinct. Fossil fuels are carbohydrates or Hydrocarbons.
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What three things do Angiosperms produce?
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Flowers, Seeds, Fruits
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Explain the anatomy and importance of seeds.
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Have a seed coat, stored food in the form of an endosperm and/or perisperm, an embryo.
Seeds are the main reason Angiosperms have become dominant. |
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Heterosporous alternation of generation:
Sporophyte Gametophyte |
2 types of spores: Microspores and megaspores.
Sporophyte - spore producing generation (2n). Meiosis leads to: Gametophyte: gamete producing generation (n) |
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What are some adaptations of plants for life on land?
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Absorption - rhizoids/roots - rhizoids are hairs that increase surface area
Dessication - cuticle (waxy covering) and stomates (specialized openings that allow for gas exchange) Conduction - Vascular tissue - xylem and phloem Support - secondary cell wall composed of lignin Gamete protection - sterile cells |
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Cooksonia
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Oldest known vascular plant.
Seedless vascular plant. Horizontal underground stem. Dichotomous branching pattern. |
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Archaefructus
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Oldest known Anigosperm in the fossil records (122-145 million years).
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Psilotum
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An ally of the ferns. No true leaves or roots or vascular tissue. Has a prophyll, which is an extension of the epidermis.
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Enation Theory
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The theory that microphylls evolved through vascular enations on the plant.
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Megaphylls evolved from...
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a branched system.
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Enation
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A flap of tissue that extend surface area for photosynthesis and gas exchange.
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Microphyll
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Like a prophyll, but has one strand of vascular tissue that does not branch. Not a true leaf.
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Telome Theory
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The theory that leaves (megaphylls) of arthrophytes, ferns, and seed plants evolved from branch systems (telomes) by overtopping, planation, and webbing.
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Overtopping
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One of the dichotomies become larger, other small.
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Planation
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When branches remain in the same plane, preventing 3 dimensional branching systems.
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Webbing
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Spaces in between branches formed a layer of chlorophyll containing tissue that made a web.
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Tendril
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Aid in support.
Some are modified stems. Most are modified leaves. (In many legumes, the tendril is a modified terminal leaflet) |
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Parthenocissus quinquefolia
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Have Tendrils.
Tendrils form adhesive disks at their tips. Modified Stem. |
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Genus: Vitus
Tendril |
Coil around a supporting structure. Pg. 575
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Cladophylls
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Stems that resemble and serve as leaves (stem-leaf).
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Genus: Asparagus
Cladophyll |
The true leaves are reduced to scales
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Genus: Ruscus
Cladophyll |
The true leaves are reduced to bracts
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Spines
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Modified leaves.
Protection against herbivores. Hard, dry and non-photosynthetic. Ex: Cacti. Page 576 |
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Thorns
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Modified branch that arises in the axils of leaves. Pg. 576
Protection against herbivores. Hard, dry and non-photosynthetic. Ex. Gledistia (honeylocust) |
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Prickles
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A slender, sharp outgrowth from the cortex and epidermis.
Ex: Roses |
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Unique modifications of leaves in carnivorous plants.
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Pitcher plants, Venus flytraps, sundews.
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Stolon
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Horizontal stem along the ground surface.
Ex. white clover (Trifolum pratense) |
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Runners
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The horizontal stem arches. ex: strawberry
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Rhizomes
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Horizontal stem below ground surface. Ex. Apios americana
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Tuber
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Enlarged section of a rhizome.
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Bulb
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Short stem with fleshy leaves.
Ex. onions, lilies, tulips |
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Corm
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Short, fleshy, vertically underground stem with papery leaves.
Ex: elephant ear's, crocus, gladiolus |
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Thick petioles
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Celery, Rhubarb
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Cytology
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THE STUDY OF CELLS!!
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Who was the founder of cytology?
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Robert Hooke
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What are the four components of cell theory?
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Living organisms are composed of cells.
Cells arise from other cells. Cells are the smallest unit of life. Cells contain hereditary information. |
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Protoplast
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Consist of the nucleus and its surrounding cytoplasm
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Cyclosis
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Cytoplasmic streaming
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Plasma membrane composition
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Lipid bilayer with embedded proteins (peripheral and transmembrane proteins).
Phospholipids. Sterols. -stigmasterol |
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Plasma membrane function
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regulates transport.
Directs synthesis of cellulose microfibrils. Receives and transmits environmental signals. |
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Nucleus function
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Controls activities by determining which proteins are produced.
Stores most of the cells' genetic information. |
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Nucleus characteristics
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Bilayer nuclear membrane.
Nuclear pores provide a direct passageway for exchange of material between nucleus and cytoplasm. Chromatin: DNA and Histone Proteins (condenses and becomes histone proteins). |
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Plastid
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Involved with photosynthesis and storage
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Proplastid
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Precursor of all other plastids.
Colorless with a low state of differentiation. Occurs in meristematic cells of root and shoot. |
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Leucoplast
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Mature plastids that have no differentiated.
Grown to larger size. Can guess what it's going to be based on location. Develop thylakoids -> Chloroplast Don't develop thylakoids -> Chromoplast, amyloplast, elioplast, or proteinoplast. |
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Which is more likely,a chromoplast to become a chloroplast or a chloroplast to become a chromoplast?
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It is more likely for a chloroplast to become a chromoplast.
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Etioplast
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Halfway developed plastid.
Contains crystalline bodies (prolamellar bodies) composed of membranes. Developes if site for chloroplast is in darkness. |
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Chromoplast
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Carotenoids.
Develop from leukoplast and Etioplast. |
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Amyloplast
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Where starch is synthesized and stored.
Primarily stored in roots. |
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Monosaccharides
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Single ring sugars.
ex: glucose (energy source) |
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Disaccharides
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Double ring sugars.
Ex: Sucrose (transport) |
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Polysaccharides
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More than two ring structures for sugar.
Starch (storage) Cellulose (structure, backbone of cell wall). |
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Hilum
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Point of Origin of starch grains.
Has deposition rings. |
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Centric Hilum
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Hilum is in the center
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Apical Hilum
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Hilum is at the tip of the circles.
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Subapical hilum
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Hilum is not at apex but closer to one end than the other.
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Elioplast
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Synthesis of lipids.
Colorless to gold. Primary monocots (palms). |
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Proteinoplast
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Synthesis of proteins.
Colorless to white. Mostly monocots. |
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Mitochondria
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Site of cellular respiration.
Double membrane. Inner membrane has cristae, increases surface area for enzymes involved with oxidation of glucose. |
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Origin of Eukaryotes
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Organelles evolved from a symbiotic or parasitic association between two prokaryotic cells.
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Evidence of Evolution of chloroplast and Mitochondria from prokaryotic organisms.
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Ribosomes.
Proteins. RNA - similar to bacteria. DNA - circular strand like bacteria. |
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Microbodies
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Bound by a single membrane
Ex. Peroxisome. Photorespiration. Oxidation of glucose. No AtP nor NADH2 are formed. > 50% glucose lost this way. |
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Golgi Apparatus Structure
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Cisternae: flattened disk shaped sacs.
Vesicles: Membranes formed at tips of cisternae |
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Golgi Apparatus Function
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Assembly of complex molecules.
Ex: Componenets of cell wall. Molecules assemble in the middle of sac, build outward, break off into vesicles, goes to location. |
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Which types of cells have more golgi apparati: Animal or Plant
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Plant cells, because they need to assemble a cell wall.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
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Series of membranes that transverse the cytoplasm.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum Function
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Pathway for transport (proteins, lipids).
Communication between and within cells. Types of E.R: Smooth and Rough |
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How do nuclei communicate with other cells' nucleus?
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Through openings in cell wall.
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Smooth E.R.
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Lacks Ribosomes.
Tubular throughout the cell. |
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Rough E.R.
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Has ribosomes.
Composed of flattened sacs (cisternae). |
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Cortical Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
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Special Region of E.R. in many cells.
Extensive network of both S.E.R. and R.E.R. located just inside of cell membrane in an area known as the cortical cytoplasm. |
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Cortical Endoplasmic Reticulum Function
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Regulated Calcium ions in the cell. Calcium ions control physiological processes. (gravitotropism).
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Vacuole
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Membrane bound region within a cell, filled with cell sap.
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Tonoplast
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A vacuole with a single membrane.
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Contents of Cell Sap
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Water, Salts, Sugars, Ions, pigments and proteins in some.
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What are some waste products of the cell?
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Nicotine and tannins.
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Secondary compounds
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Produced by plants, but not needed to survive.
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Crystal formation
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Concentration of bi-product in the vacuole become high, and then changes from dissolved substance to solid crystals.
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What are three types of crystals?
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Raphides, Druces, Prismatic
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Raphides
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Needle shaped.
Musa (banana) Dieffenbachia (house plant) |
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Druce
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Mace shaped.
Ginkgo Cercis |
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Prismatic
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Begonia
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Vacuoles with pigments
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Anthocyanins (water soluble)
Red, Blue, Purple, Violet Ex: Radishes, Turnips, cabbage, grapes, plums, cherries. Partly responsible for Autumnal Coloration |
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Cell Wall:
Function |
Provide support for each individual cell.
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Types of Cell Walls
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Primary Cell Wall - .1 to .5 Micrometers.
Secondary Cell Wall - 3-5 micrometers thick. Inside primary cell wall. Present when cell is dead. |
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Cell Wall:
Composition. Glue for primary cell wall. Glue for secondary cell wall. |
Cellulose
Hemicellulose and Pectin. Lignin. |
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Middle Lamella
The glue for it. |
The region of union of the primary cell walls.
Held together by Calcium or Magnesium pectate. |
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Macrofibrils...
made of... which are made of... |
Make up secondary cell wall.
Microfibrils. Micelle. |
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Veen Multinet Theory
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How cell walls grow after division.
Original cell wall stretches. |
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Cell deposition theory
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How cell walls grow after division.
New cell wall is deposited. |
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Cell deposition theory -
Appositional |
New cellulose is layed down on old wall.
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Cell deposition theory-
Intussusception |
New cell wall is woven into old wall.
Hemicellulose and pectin are stuffed into cellulose. |
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Formation of New Plasmalemma
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Vesicles that are used for transport deposit materials into membrane.
Transition vesicles pinch off from the R.R.R. Transition vesicles move to golgi body. Components of cell wall are assembled. Secretory vesicles attach to plasmalemma, become part of the cell membrane. |
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Cell shape:
Determined by? two things. |
Angle of microfibrils.
Surrounding cells. |
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Plasmodesmata
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Cytoplasmic connection between cells.
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Desmotubule
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a tube of appressed endoplasmic reticulum that runs between two adjacent cells.
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Primary pit field
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Depressed area of primary cell wall where you find numerous plasmodesmata.
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Secondary Cell Walls:
Characteristics |
Not always present
Deposited inside of primary cell wall. Rigid. Thicker than primary cells wall. Dead at maturity. Lumen. |
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Types of cells with secondary cell walls, and transport/support.
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Tracheids - transport
Vessel - transport Sclereids - support Fibers - support |
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Compound Middle Lamella
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Consists of two adjacent primary cell walls, and perhaps first layer of secondary cell wall.
Necessary if secondary cell wall is present. |
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Ultrastructure of secondary cell wall.
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s1 - outside, thin
s2 - middle, thickest s3 - inside, thin. surrounds lumen. Angle of macrofibrils the reason cells are non stretchable. |
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Pits:
Types |
Simple - has no borders.
Bordered - has borders. duhhhh |
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Monocotyledons
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Monocots.
Single aperture pollen. 65,000 species. 127 million years ago. |
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Eudicotyledons
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Eudicots.
Triaperature pollen. 165,000 species 127 million years ago Multiples of 4's and 5's for leaves and stuff |
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Magnoliids
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Single aperture pollen.
Ethereal oil cells. 7,000 species. 140 million years ago. |
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Magnoliids gave rise to...
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Monocots and Eudicots.
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A reduction in leaf/nuclei/cells means usually an evolutionary advantage or disadvantage?
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An evolutionary advantage.
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Funiculus
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stalk that attaches to ovary wall
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Integument
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Seed Coat
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Chalazel
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End of megagametophyte opposite the micropyl.
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Embryogenesis - establishing polarity
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Zygote divides transversely.
Establishes Polarity. Chalazal Pole. Micropylar pole. |
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Embryo Proper
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Spherical structure that develops into real plant.
Contains the three tissue systems - dermal, ground, vascular. |
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Suspensor:
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Pushes embryo into endosperm.
Aids in absorption of nutrients. (gibberellins, proteins, endosperm) |
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Three tissue systems in embryo proper
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Dermal - epidermis - gives rise to roots, stems, leaves.
Ground - gives rise to everything else. Vascular - xylem and phloem. |
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Hypocotyl
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The area of central axis below cotyledon
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Radicle
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Tip of hypocotyl - grows into the root
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Seed can be called a...
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mature ovule.
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Tracheids
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Elongate cells with long, tapering ends. First type of water conducting cells to evolve. Provide channels for water/minerals.
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Grana
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Stacks of disklike thylakoids that resemble stack of coins. Within chloroplast.
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Epicotyl
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Bump that develops into stem and leaves.
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Testa
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Outer integument (seed coat)
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Tegmen
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Inner integument (seed coat)
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Hilum
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Scar where funiculus once attached.
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Micropyle
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forms into small pinhole at base of hilum.
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Raphe
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small flaps of tissue that are remains of funiculus, found around hilum.
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Caruncle
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spongy outgrowth of integuments, covers hilum and micropyle
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Internal anatomy of a seed when endosperm is outside the embryo.
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Cotyledons remain thin and leaflike and absorb endosperm as needed. In most eudicots and Magnoliids.
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What is the ploidy number of an endosperm?
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3n or 5n.
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What is the ploidy number of a Perisperm?
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2n
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Nucellus
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The Wall of the Gametophyte
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Perisperm
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When nucellus has stored starch.
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Plumule
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consists of first foliage leaves and epicotyl.
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Scutellum
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Single cotyledon of monocot
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Coleorhiza
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layer of protective tissue that covers the radicle.
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Coleoptile
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Layer of protective tissue that covers the first foliage leaves
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Dormancy
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The period of time between embryo maturity and seed germination.
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What makes a seed dormant?
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Dehydration! 10-15 % of original water content.
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Reasons for dormancy:
2 |
Dispersal.
Allows for conditions to turn more favorable for germination to occur. |
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Physical dormancy
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seed coat prevents water from entering. Abrasion will allow for water to enter.
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Scarification
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process of breaking down the seed coat.
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Self-Imposed Dormancy
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Cold, Heat, Light will activate the seed.
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Vivipary
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As soon as embryo reaches maturity, keeps growing.
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Afterripening
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8-12 days of chillin, then the seed grows.
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Viability
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How long a seed can remain dormant and still germinate.
Zea (corn) - 5 years Albizia (mimosa) 125+ years Nelumbo (waterlilly) 1250+ years. |
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Imbibation
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The physical uptake of water
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Two types of Germination.
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Epigeous - Cotyledons grow above ground
Hypogeous - Cotyledons grow underground. |
