Physiological Psychology Exam #2

Front 1

Describe the steps of transduction in the Auditory System

Back 1

1. Sound enters external ear, setting up pattern of vibrations in the tympanic membrane

2. Hammer attached to the tympanic membrane is affected, causing ossicles to vibrate in certain manner, increasing the intensity/pressure

3. Movement of fluid in inner ear is set up since the end plate of the stapes is attached to the oval window

4. Basilar membrane is displaced, a structure which is tuned to certain frequencies

5. Hair cells resting on support cells sitting on basilar membrane begin to move

6. Cilia embedded in tectorial membrane move with respect to tectorial membrane

7. Cilia bend back and forth

8. K+ ion channels open up

9. Hair cells are depolarized

10. Ca2+ channels open up at base of hair cells

11. Vesicles are released

12. Postsynaptic element is depolarized

Front 2

What is Reception?

Back 2

Absorption of physical energy by the receptors

Front 3

What is Aphasia?

Back 3

A case of language impairment due to brain injury.

Front 4

What is Paraphasia?

Back 4

An insertion of incorrect sounds or words, along with labored, effortful speech production

Front 5

What is Nonfluent Speech?

Back 5

Talking with considerable effort, in short sentences, and without the usual melodic character of conversational speech

Front 6

Characteristics of Broca's Aphasia:

Back 6

Damage occurs in region of frontal lobe involved in Speech Production. These patients are nonfluent, but comprehension is good. Paraphasia is uncommon. Repetition & Naming poor.

Front 7

Characteristics of Wernicke's Aphasia:

Back 7

Area affected is centered in Superior Temporal Cortex, which is involved in Comprehension. This damage results in fluent but meaningless speech - paraphasia is common. Comprehension is poor. Repetition & Naming poor.

Front 8

What is Phototransduction?

Back 8

Conversion of that physical energy into electrochemical patterns

Front 9

What is Coding?

Back 9

Correspondence between some aspect of the physical stimulus and some aspect of neural activity

Front 10

Describe differences between nasal and temporal retina and where projections cross. What does the nasal versus the temporal retina see? What do we know from that slide with lesions in differing parts of the pathways?

Back 10

Nasal retina projections cross at the Optic Chiasm, and retinal projections on the temporal side stay on that same side. The temporal retina sees the right side in the left eye, and the left side in the right eye, while the nasal retina is vice versa. When lesion involves whole Optic Nerve, left eye sees nothing while right eye sees both sides. When lesion involves half of Optic Nerve on left side, right visual field of left eye is impaired, both visual fields of right eye visible. When there is a lesion of the Optic Chiasm, left half of visual field of left eye is impaired, and right half of visual field of right eye is impaired. When lesion is at any point of Visual Tract (on left eye), right side of visual field of either eye is impaired.

Front 11

What is Visual Acuity?

Back 11

Sharpness of vision

Front 12

What is the difference between On & Off Bipolar Cells in terms of how they respond to light, and how they respond to glutamate?

Back 12

On Bipolar Cells, in the presence of light & while receiving less glutamate, depolarize. Off Bipolar Cells in presence of no light and more glutamate being released, depolarize.

Front 13

Visual Field

Back 13

The whole area you can see without moving your head

Front 14

Can you describe differences and similarities between Visual & Auditory System?

Back 14

Topographic representation from both structures: Retinotopic Representation versus Tonotopic Representation. Retinotopic representation is exhibited in the Superior Colliculus, the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, and V1. Tonotopic Representation is exhibited on the basilar membrane and the Inferior Colliculus. For the auditory system you have efferent information coming from the brain and afferent information going *to* the brain, but for the visual system you project to the brain, not receive. So, both have an afferent pathway, but Auditory System also has an efferent pathway where brain sends input to system. On a physical level, air molecules undergo expansion and compression as they enter ear (mechanical), and photons, which are particles of light energy, enter the eye (capturing this light is *also* mechanical). Both sensory systems start out on a mechanical basis and progress to Neural Transduction. Sensory information for the ear crosses at a lower level. Receptive field for Visual System is in Retina, Receptive Field for Auditory System is Basilar Membrane.

Front 15

Refraction

Back 15

Bending of light

Front 16

What does functional activation mean? Does it mean only a single region of the brain is active @ any one time?

Back 16

Brain areas are only more or less active in relation to other areas. It is not true that any one brain region is active by itself at any one time. This all goes back to the “you only use 10% of your brain” myth. We are using all of our brain, all of the time! The functional activation just differs for differing areas of cortex.

Front 17

Accommodation

Back 17

Process of focusing

Front 18

Know the difference between the thalamic nuclei: V1, S1 and A1

Back 18

V1, S1 and A1 are the major cortical areas associated with visual, somatosensory and auditory processing respectively. V1 = Lateral Geniculate nucleus, A1 = Medial Geniculate Nucleus

Front 19

What happens to images from the real world when they make it to the retina?

Back 19

Inverted top to bottom and reversed right to left

Front 20

Quick! What is the structure of the Retina?

Back 20

Pigment Epithelium

Rods & Cones

Horizontal Cells/Bipolar Cells

Amacrine Cells/Ganglion Cells

Nerve Fiber Layer

Front 21

What hemisphere does the entirety of the "Right Visual Field" project to?

Back 21

The left cerebral hemisphere

Front 22

What does the Left Primary Visual Cortex get input from?

Back 22

*Both* eyes, but only the right visual field!

Front 23

Pupil

Back 23

Opening

Front 24

Iris

Back 24

Circular muscle controls size of pupil

Front 25

What is Differential Activation?

Back 25

You have different kinds of cones absorbing different kinds of light, so, they're going to be active in different ways.

Front 26

What is the only cell in the eye that has Action Potentials?

Back 26

The Ganglion Cell

Front 27

Cornea

Back 27

Covers the outside of eye, bends (refracts) light, and is responsible for forming the image on the retina

Front 28

Lens

Back 28

Transparent disc located behind iris, - changes shape to allow image to be focused on the back of the eye

Front 29

Photopic versus Scotopic System

Back 29

Photopic: Low sensitivity, small RF in fovea (high acuity), rapid temporal response

Scotopic: High sensitivty, larger RF, slow temporal response

Front 30

Retina

Back 30

Laminated structure forming back of eye containing photoreceptors and cells necessary to process visual info

Front 31

What are the three types of Ganglion Cells?

Back 31

Parvocellular: Small RF, sustained response, interested in color

Magnocellular: Big RF, transient response, sees subtle shades of gray, sensitive to low contrast

W Cells

Front 32

Optic Nerve

Back 32

Formed by axons from Ganglion Cells that exit the eye

Front 33

Describe the Ventral Stream "What" Object Recognition

Back 33

M & W Cells - Retina to SC, SC to Pulvinar, Pulvinar to Inferotemporal Cortex

Front 34

Describe the Dorsal Stream "Where" Visual Attention

Back 34

M & P Cells: Retina to LGN, LGN to V1, V1 to Posterior Parietal Cortex

Front 35

Optic Chiasm

Back 35

Place where axons from portions of nasal retina decussate

Front 36

Two types of LGN Cells

Back 36

On Center & Off Center

Front 37

Optic Tract

Back 37

From chiasm to LGN and Cerebral Cortex

Front 38

What do Visual Cortical cells respond to?

Back 38

Bars of light in a certain orientation or moving in a certain direction

Front 39

What are the three types of Eye Movement, and what are the differences?

Back 39

Saccadic (Quick from one point to another), Nystagmus (Large oscillatory movements due to active contraction of extra ocular muscles), and Smooth Pursuit (slow deliberate movement of eyes used for tracking).

Front 40

Four organizational features of V1

Back 40

Topographic, Ocular Dominance Columns, Orientation Selectivity, Blob/Interblob

Front 41

What is Topographic Organization?

Back 41

Where adjacent portions of Sensory Epithelium are represented on adjacent portions of cortex.

Front 42

What is the Receptive Field?

Back 42

The portion of sensory receptor array that when stimulated produces a neural response

Front 43

What do photoreceptors do in the presence of light?

Back 43

Hyperpolarize!

Front 44

What are Ocular Dominance Columns?

Back 44

Stripes of neurons that prefer one eye to another. Magno & Parvo serving each eye remain segregated in columns.

Front 45

What is Orientation Selectivity?

Back 45

Orientation info is organized in a segregated manner

Front 46

What is Blob/Interblob?

Back 46

The sensitivity to color information

Front 47

Sound

Back 47

The change in pressure of some medium

Front 48

Two types of Bipolar Cells?

Back 48

Midget and Diffuse

Front 49

Two types of Retinal Cells involved in Receptive Field Construction?

Back 49

Horizontal & Amacrine Cells, via Lateral Inhibition of neighbors

Front 50

What is frequency?

Back 50

Number of changes per cycles (one complete expansion and compression) per second, measured in Hertz

Front 51

Intensity

Back 51

Distance particles move in a defined period (measured in Decibels)

Front 52

Receptive Field of Retina

Back 52

The area of the retina that when stimulated, causes a change in the cell's membrane potential

Front 53

Where are the lower & higher frequencies of the Basilar Membrane?

Back 53

Lower towards center further away from Oval Window (or apex), higher frequency near Oval Window (or base)

Front 54

What is Resonance Frequency?

Back 54

Frequency @ which an object vibrates best. External ear canal has this.

Front 55

Lateral Inhibition

Back 55

Reduction of activity of one neuron by activity of another neuron

Front 56

What is Pinna involved in?

Back 56

Vertical localization of sound

Front 57

Let's talk about the Superior Colliculus

Back 57

It's a laminated structure. Projects to Occulomotor Nucleus & receives input from FEF (for eye movements)

Front 58

Two muscles in ear

Back 58

Stapedius Muscle and Tensor Tympani muscle (damps down the sound of our swallowing)

Front 59

Where does major input from LGN come from?

Back 59

Yes, some of it comes from retina, but even more importantly it comes from the Cerebral Cortex

Front 60

What is the Superchiasmatic Nucleus involved in?

Back 60

Circadian Rhythms

Front 61

Three bones of ear

Back 61

Malleus, Incus, and Stapes

Front 62

Blobs versus Interblobs

Back 62

Blobs: Monocular, Wavelength sensitive

Interblobs: Binocular, Insensitive to wavelength

Front 63

Eustachian Tube

Back 63

Throat connector, helps maintain pressure

Front 64

Where is the inner ear?

Back 64

The cochlea

Front 65

Scotoma

Back 65

Perceptual gap in visual field due to lesions in V1

Front 66

Visual Neglect/Hemineglect

Back 66

Inability to attend to portions of visual field

Front 67

What is Sensory Transduction?

Back 67

Conversion of physical energy into an electrochemical event (into a change of membrane potential of receptor cell).

Front 68

Receptor Potential/Generator Potential

Back 68

Local changes in membrane potential resulting from impinging physical stimulus. Follows time-course and amplitude of stimulus.

Front 69

Cochlea

Back 69

Intricate hole in temporal bone

Front 70

Three ways of coding

Back 70

The type of neuron active

The place where neuron is firing

The rate at which neuron is firing

Front 71

Pacinian Corpuscle

Back 71

Vibration & Pressure, Fast adapting & sometimes On/Off Response, RF large & vague borders,

Front 72

Three canals of cochlea

Back 72

Scalas tympani, media, and vestibuli

Front 73

Are sensory receptors interested in absolute amount of energy present, or changes in energy?

Back 73

Changes!

Front 74

Which hair cells account for 90-95% of the perception of sound?

Back 74

Inner Hair Cells

Front 75

Sensory Adaptation

Back 75

When receptors cease to signal change

Front 76

Mechanosensory

Back 76

Change in voltage accomplished by a mechanical displacement of the receptor which in turn causes the opening of ion channels

Front 77

C Fibers versus A-Delta Fibers

Back 77

C Fibers: Unmyelinated, lasting pain & temperature

A-Delta Fibers: Myelinated, registers sharp pain quickly

Front 78

Merkel's Discs

Back 78

Touch, slow adapting, RF small & sharp,

Front 79

Meissner's Corpuscle

Back 79

Touch, rapidly adapting, RF small & sharp,

Front 80

Ruffini's Ending

Back 80

Stretch,

Front 81

Tuning Curve

Back 81

Intensity on Y Axis, Frequency on X Axis

Front 82

Mechanoreceptors

Back 82

Unipolar cells with a receptor end, a cell body in the dorsal root ganglia, and a termination in the spinal cord or elsewhere

Front 83

Place Theory

Back 83

Where on the basilar membrane vibration is the greatest, those are the receptor cells that are going to be most stimulated

Front 84

Auditory Pathway

Back 84

Dorsal & Ventral Cochlear Nucleus project to ipsi & contra Superior Olivary Complex to Inferior Colliculus, to Medial Geniculate, to Auditory Cortex

Front 85

Motor Pathway

Back 85

Primary Motor Cortex to Cerebellum, Cerebellum to Thalamus, Thalamus to Nonprimary Cortex, Nonprimary Cortex to Basal Ganglia, and Cerebellum also goes to Brainstem

Front 86

How have animals evolved in regards to receptors?

Back 86

Specialization, change in distribution, density of receptors, and number of receptors

Front 87

Flexor versus Extensor

Back 87

Biceps versus Triceps (Antagonists)

Front 88

Primary Afferents

Back 88

Axons from receptors carry signal to spinal cord and brain

Front 89

How is Mechanosensory and Proprioceptive information relayed?

Back 89

Via Primary Afferents which are large and myelinated

Front 90

How is Pain and Temperature relayed?

Back 90

Via Primary Afferents which are small and unmyelinated

Front 91

Mechanosensory and Proprioceptive System Synpases (AKA Dorsal Column Pathway) to Medial Lemniscal Pathway

Back 91

1. Ipsilaterally ventral horn alpha motor neuron

2. Ipsilaterally on Interneuron

3. Descend and synapse ipsilaterally on ventral horn alpha motor neuron

4. Descend and synapse ipsilaterally on interneuron

5. Ascend without synapsing in spinal cord until it reaches cuneate nucleus of brainstem.

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6. Exits cuneate & crosses at medulla to contralateral side

7. Synapses in thalamus

----------------------------------------

For face: Synapses in principal division of Trigeminal Nucleus in Brainstem

Front 92

Nociceptive System Synpases (Spinothalamic Tract)

Back 92

Ipsilaterally in Substantia Gelatinosa, crosses spinal cord & ascends contralateral spinal cord to synapse in thalamus.

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For face: Synapses on spinal division of Trigeminal Nucleus of brainstem.

Crosses over brain and travels to contralateral thalamus (joins Spinothalamic Tract/Medial Lemniscal Pathway)

Front 93

VP, VPM, VPL,

Back 93

Cutaneous, Cutaneous Face, Cutaneous Body

Front 94

Areas associated with Proprioception (Might not have to know)

Back 94

2 & 3a

Front 95

What are posterior parietal areas associated with?

Back 95

Visuomotor Functions: Intentional reaching/grasping, hand eye coordination, hand mouth coordination

Front 96

Tactile recognition areas?

Back 96

S2/PV

Front 97

Polymodal Cells

Back 97

Allow for different interactions

Front 98

Two types of muscle receptors

Back 98

Muscle Spindle, Golgi Tendon Organ

Front 99

Excitement for muscle stretch

Back 99

Both muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organ!

Front 100

Excitement for muscle contraction

Back 100

Golgi Tendon Organ

Front 101

What is sufficient to perceive proprioception?

Back 101

Muscle spindle activity. Vibration artificially activates muscle spindles. The brain interprets this as change in joint angle. However, you will believe your *eyes* over this info.

Front 102

Taxidermied monkey arm

Back 102

Certain neurons will respond as if *that* arm is the monkey's arm if it is in a realistic position, and looks like their arm!

Front 103

Somatotopy

Back 103

Muscles of neighboring body parts are also represented close together in motor cortex

Front 104

Is somatopy more precise in somatosensory cortex or motor cortex?

Back 104

Somatosensory Cortex

Front 105

What determines what muscles are activated?

Back 105

Where the arm is in space. We activate particular points in space, not particular muscles. To reiterate, different behaviors not different muscles.

Front 106

What's one special thing neurons in the motor/premotor cortex can do?

Back 106

They keep track of a little bubble around your head, whether you can see it or not, and respond sensorily. They remember where the thing was even when it's dark.!

Front 107

Cooling Chips Crap

Back 107

Turn on the cooling, & you can stop arm movement.! Turn on cooling in another area and you aren't stopping arm movement.

Front 108

What is the Resonant Frequency for the human middle and external ear?

Back 108

The frequency of speech!

Front 109

Ossicles

Back 109

Small bones in middle ear. Their mechanical movement amplifies the intensity of the sound. Converts change over a large surface area to a small surface area.

Front 110

Oval Window

Back 110

Thin membrane separating middle from inner ear.

Front 111

Round Window

Back 111

Separates middle and inner ear - pressure release for fluids of inner ear.

Front 112

What looks at interaural times and differences?

Back 112

Superior Olivary Nucleus

Front 113

Two signs of Dyslexia

Back 113

Ectopia (neurons in unusual places - Wernicke's Area) & Micropolygyria

Front 114

Wernicke's Area Damage

Back 114

Heschl's Gyrus

Front 115

Global Aphasia

Back 115

Lesions both areas, no comprehension, no output

Front 116

Conduction Aphasia

Back 116

Lesion of arcuate fasciculus

Fluent speech

Small changes in comprehension

Major impairment in repetition