Physiological Psychology Exam 2

Front 1

What are rods

Back 1

Cells in the retina responsible for dim vision and extreme light sensitivity. Most concentrated at the extreme periphery of the eye and decreases moving towards the fovea.

Front 2

What are cones

Back 2

Cells in the retina responsible for color and detailed vision. Most concentrated at the fovea and decrease moving towards the periphery.

Front 3

What is the visual pathway

Back 3

Light ⇒ receptors → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → optic chiasm → lateral geniculate nucleus → visual cortex

Front 4

What is the Trichromatic Theory

Back 4

Theory of color vision proposed by Thomas Young & Hermann von Helmholtz. Theory that color is perceived through the relative rates of response by three kinds of cones in an additive process similar to mixing paint.
- Does address the three different types of cones
- PROBLEM – negative color afterimages

Front 5

What is the Opponent-Process Theory

Back 5

Theory of color vision proposed by Ewald Hering.
- Color is perceived in terms of cones that work as paired opposites – red vs. green, yellow vs. blue, white vs. black
- Bipolar cells and cells in Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

Front 6

What is the Retinex Theory

Back 6

Theory of color vision proposed by Edwin Land.
- When information from the various parts of the retina reaches the cortex, the cortex compares each of the inputs to determine the brightness and color perception for each area.

Front 7

What is the most common color vision deficiency

Back 7

Red-Green Color Deficiency (8% of men only 1% of women).
- A gene causes the long and medium wavelength cones to make the same photopigments instead of different ones (trouble distinguishing between red and green)
- Gene is on the X chromosome.

Front 8

What are the three visual pathways of the primary visual cortex

Back 8

Magnocellular path – movement perception

Parvocellular Path – Complex Shape Analysis. Not moving.

Magnocellular/Parvocellular Path – color and brightness

Front 9

What is the dorsal stream

Back 9

Visual path in the parietal cortex - “Where” and “how” pathway
- Where items are in the visual field, helps the motor system find and use objects
- Integration of vision with movement
- When damaged, cannot accurately reach for an object, even after describing its size, shape, and color. Cannot remember arrangements.

Front 10

What is the ventral stream

Back 10

Visual paths in the ventral part of the temporal cortex
- Helps us recognize the identity of items in our visual field (shape, movement, and color/brightness)
- Specific areas fire for certain items, such as faces
- When damaged, cannot describe what they see, impaired visual imagination and memory (missing the “what”)

Front 11

What is Visual Agnosia

Back 11

Deficiency characterized by an inability to recognize objects without otherwise visual impairment

Front 12

What is Prosopagnosia

Back 12

Agnosia with faces due to damage to the fusiform gyrus in the right hemisphere

Front 13

What is Astigmatism

Back 13

Deficiency characterized by blurring of lines in the vision
- Usually horizontal

Front 14

What is amblyopia

Back 14

Also know as Lazy Eye
- Normal treatment is to patch the good eye
- Further treatment is surgery to weaken the muscles pulling the eye away

Front 15

What are the ways sound is perceived

Back 15

Amplitude: intensity
o Loudness is the perception of intensity
o Measured in decibels

Frequency of a sound: the number of compressions per second
o Pitch is the perception of frequency
o Measured in hertz (Hz)

Front 16

What is the tympanic membrane

Back 16

Structure also known as the eardrum
- Struck by sound waves that enter the ear, vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves that strike it
- Surrounded by air on both sides

Front 17

What are the three small bones of the inner ear

Back 17

Hammer (malleus), Anvil (incus), Stirrup (stapes)
- Three smallest bones in the body
- The stirrup is connected to the cochlea
- Transmit vibrations to the oval window

Front 18

What is the oval window

Back 18

Structure of the inner ear; membrane with air on the external side and viscous fluid behind it
- Located at the entrance of the scala vestibuli of the cochlea

Front 19

What is the cochlea

Back 19

Structure of the inner ear composed of three long, fluid-filled tunnels running approximately parallel to each other along its length
- Sensitivity varies by frequency along its length
o Associated with the rigidity at that length
- Filled with fluid that moves in response to sound waves

Front 20

What are hair cells in the auditory system

Back 20

Specialized neurons inside the cochlea with hair-like cilia
o Bending creates action potentials
o Located between the basilar and tectorial membranes

Front 21

What is the auditory pathway

Back 21

Sound enters the ear → waves hit the tympanic membrane → bones of the inner ear, stirrup transmits vibrations → oval window → Motion of fluid in the cochlea, displacement of hair cells → Cochlea Nucleus, some crossing over → Superior Olive, some crossing over → inferior colliculus → Thalamus → Medial Geniculate Nucleus → Auditory Cortex (Temporal Lobe)

Front 22

What is the Frequency theory

Back 22

Theory addressing the perception of pitch, hypothesizes that the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound producing action potentials at the same rate as the frequency of the sound.
- Problem: hearing goes up to around 20,000 Hz, too fast (Refractory period & maximal firing rate of about 1000 Hz)
- Only works for low-frequencys (up to 100 Hz)

Front 23

What is the place theory

Back 23

Theory addressing the perception of pitch, hypothesizes that different areas along the basilar membrane vibrate in response to different frequencies
- Problem: areas of the basilar membrane are bound together too tightly for every part to resonate like a piano string
- Seems to work for frequencies between 4,000 Hz up to 20,000 Hz

Front 24

What are the ways we localize sounds

Back 24

- Detect the difference in intensity between each ear (works best for frequencies above 2-3,000 Hz)
- Detect the difference in the time of arrival at each ear
- Detect the phase difference between the ears (This works best for low frequencies)

Front 25

What is Conductive Deafness

Back 25

Hearing loss due to mechanical issues; problem of the middle ear occurs if the bones of the middle ear do not transmit sound waves properly.
- Causes include diseases, infections, tumors, etc.

Front 26

What is Nerve Deafness also known as inner-ear deafness

Back 26

Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or the auditory nerve. Causes include German measles and other diseases during pregnancy, lack of oxygen at birth, inadequate activity of thyroid gland, multiple sclerosis, meningitis, reaction to aspirin (children), and repeated expose to loud noises (**most common cause)

Front 27

What is the Periaqueductal Gray Area

Back 27

Area in the midbrain; stimulation causes the release of endogenous opiates (endorphins)

Front 28

What are the two pathways that deal with the different aspects of pain

Back 28

Pain information to somatosensory cortex (sensory aspects of pain, located in the parietal lobe)

Pathway to hypothalamus and thalamus (emotional aspects of pain)

Front 29

What are the two areas in the brain that process aspects of taste

Back 29

- Nucleus of the Tractus Solitarius (NTS) – taste nerves project to this structure in the medulla
- The somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) responds to touch aspects of tongue stimulation and the insula is the primary taste cortex ← area of the brain that processes taste information

Front 30

What are the types of muscles

Back 30

Smooth muscles

skeletal/striated muscles

cardiac muscles

Front 31

What is Myasthenia Gravis

Back 31

An autoimmune disease, the immune system forms antibodies that attack the acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junctions

Front 32

What is the moro reflex

Back 32

Neonatal reflex - Infant suddenly loses support for neck and head, throws out arms and then brings them together in an embrace; throws out legs and returns them to a fixed position; hands curl slightly as if to grab

Front 33

What is the startle reflex

Back 33

Neonatal reflex - similar to Moro but arms are flexed rather than extended and fingers are closed

Front 34

What is the rooting reflex

Back 34

Neonatal reflex - turns head towards stroking object when touched at corner of mouth. Mouth opens and infant attempts to suck. Appears during the first two weeks.

Front 35

What is the sucking reflex

Back 35

Neonatal reflex - rapid burst of sucks if soft palate of mouth is stimulated

Front 36

What is the babinski reflex

Back 36

Neonatal reflex - an extension of the big toe and fanning of the other toes upon gentle stroking of the outer edge of the sole of the foot. Disappears by end of first year.

Front 37

What is the palmar reflex

Back 37

Neonatal reflex - touching of the palm elicits grasping. Palmer reflex is replaced by voluntary grasp at 4 – 7 months.

Front 38

What is the stepping (or walking) reflex

Back 38

Neonatal reflex - seen by end of 2nd week in about 40% of infants. Disappears by 5th month.

Front 39

What is the swimming reflex

Back 39

Neonatal reflex - rhythmic swimming movements held stomach down in water. Disappears by 5th month.

Front 40

Lateral corticospinal/Dorsolateral Tract (pyramidal)

Back 40

Motor tract with axons that originate in primary motor cortex and red nucleus
- Crosses to contralateral side in the medulla – the pyramids
- Movements in the peripheral areas of the body
o Discrete, precise movements of the hands, arms, fingers, and toes

Front 41

Medial corticospinal/Ventromedial Tract

Back 41

Motor tract with axons that originate mostly from primary motor cortex and supplementary cortex; also has axons from midbrain tectum, the reticular formation, and the vestibular nucleus
- Ipsilateral
- Gross body movements
o Muscles of the neck, shoulders, and trunk

Front 42

What is the Red Nucleus

Back 42

an area of the midbrain, primarily responsible for controlling the arm muscles

Front 43

What makes up the basal ganglia and what role do they play in the control of movement

Back 43

Made up of the caudate, putamen, and golbus pallidus.
- The caudate and putamen receive input from sensory areas from the thalamus and cortex
- The globus pallidus is an output area sending information to the thalamus, which then goes to motor cortex and prefrontal cortex

Front 44

What is Parkinson's Disease

Back 44

A disorder of movement that affects 1:100 over age 50 characterized by rigidity, muscle tremors, slow movements, difficulty initiating physical and mental activity

Front 45

What are the causes of Parkinson's Disease

Back 45

1. Early onset has strong genetic basis
2. Toxic substances: MPTP ⇒ MPP+
3. Head injury

- Gradual loss of DA producing neurons from the substantia nigra (greater than 70 - 80% loss is when symptoms usually appear) *increases inhibition of the thalamus

Front 46

What is Huntington's Disease

Back 46

A disorder of movement, affects 1:10,000, usually appears between the ages of 30 & 50. Symptoms include: jerky arm movements, facial twitch, later – tremors spread and develop into writhing movements. Associated psychological symptoms are extensive– may resemble schizophrenia in early stages. Gradual, extensive brain damage in basal ganglia and cortex. Death usually within 15 – 20 years after symptoms appear

Front 47

What are the causes of Huntington's Disease

Back 47

Disease controlled by an autosomal dominant gene (chromosome 4)
- Normal gene sequence of bases C-A-G repeated 11-24 times. Disease sequence is repeated at least 36 times. Correlation between number of sequences and age of onset
- Gene codes a protein that causes brain damage – may interfere with the expression of many genes in neurons

Front 48

What is the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Back 48

A small nucleus in the hypothalamus located just above the optic chiasm
- Generates circadian rhythms itself
- Genetically controlled

Front 49

What is melatonin's role in sleep

Back 49

A hormone released by the pineal gland, influences the circadian and circannual rhythms
- increases sleepiness
- secretion starts to increase 2 – 3 hours before bedtime

Front 50

What is the awake stage

Back 50

Sleep stage characterized by beta waves (13-25 cycles/sec) – low amplitude, high frequency EEG

Front 51

What is relaxed wakefulness

Back 51

Sleep stage characterized by alpha waves (8-12 cycles/sec) – Drowsy, relaxed state – low amplitude lower frequency EEG

Front 52

What is stage one sleep

Back 52

Sleep stage characterized by an irregular EEG; low-voltage waves – mix of theta (3.5 – 8 Hz) and beta waves – easy to wake

Front 53

What is stage two sleep

Back 53

Sleep stage characterized by EEG slowing down – mostly theta waves – deeper level of sleep

Front 54

What is stage three sleep

Back 54

Sleep stage characterized by slow wave sleep (SWS) – theta and delta waves – high amplitude, low frequency EEG – deeper sleep

Front 55

What is stage four sleep

Back 55

Sleep stage characterized by slow wave sleep (SWS) – delta waves (.5 – 3.4 Hz) – very deep sleep – difficult to wake

Front 56

What is REM sleep

Back 56

Sleep stage characterized by high brain activity, despite being a “deep” sleep - a desynchronized EEG pattern
- Postural muscles are very relaxed
- See increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, erections in males, and vaginal moistening in females

Front 57

What is adenosines function in sleep and arousal

Back 57

This inhibits the arousal system
- Levels build up during the day until they promote sleep, then decrease during sleep
- Stimulants like caffeine inhibit this to produce increased arousal.

Front 58

What are prostaglandins function in sleep and arousal

Back 58

This promotes sleep
- Levels build up during the day until they promote sleep and then decline during sleep.

Front 59

What is the function of the preoptic area for internal regulation

Back 59

Brain area next to the Anterior Hypothalamus, sometimes treated as a single area.
- Monitors body temperature partly by monitoring its own temperature
- Receives input from temperature sensitive receptors in the skin and spinal cord
- Damage impairs temperature regulation

Front 60

What is the function of Antidiuretic Hormone (vasopressin) in internal regulation

Back 60

Hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
Causes the kidneys to reabsorb water, concentrating urine, and constriction of blood vessels to raise blood pressure.

Front 61

What is the function of Aldosteron in internal regulation

Back 61

Hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. Causes the kidneys, salivary glands, and sweat glands to reabsorb Na+ and other salts.

Front 62

What is the function of the organum vasculosum laminae terminalis (OVLT) in internal regulation

Back 62

Brain area around the third ventricle that is not well protected by the blood-brain barrier.
Relays information to supraoptic nucleus and the paraventicular nucleus (PVN) that control the release of ADH from pituitary gland, reducing loss of fluid
- Relays information to the lateral preoptic nucleus that is also involved in the control of drinking behavior

Front 63

What is the function of Angiotensin II in internal regulation

Back 63

A vasoconstrictor → increases blood pressure
- also stimulates the subfornical organ (SFO) to initiate drinking

Front 64

What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) in internal regulation

Back 64

Brain area sometimes called the “Hunger Center”
- Controls insulin secretion
- Damage results in aphagia and adipsia

Front 65

What is the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) in internal regulation

Back 65

Brain area sometimes called the “Satiety Center”
- Damage results in hyperphagia

Front 66

What is the function of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in internal regulation

Back 66

Brain area that when damaged also results in hyperphagia (Rats eat larger meals rather than more meals)
- Output acts on the lateral hypothalamus

Front 67

What is the function of the arcuate nucleus in internal regulation

Back 67

Brain area considered the “master area” for appetite control
- Have both hunger sensitive cells and satiety sensitive cells.
- Much of the output goes to Paraventricular Nucleus

Front 68

What is Turner's Syndrome

Back 68

Abnormal development producing a genetic female (XO) lacking an X chromosome.
- Characterized by lack of ovaries but otherwise normal female sex organs and genitalia.
- Normal intelligence and verbal abilities but may have impaired spatial abilities.

Front 69

What is Klinefelter's Syndrome

Back 69

Abnormal development producing a genetic male (XXY), but because of extra X chromosome male gonads do not develop normally. 1 in 500 genetic males.
- Lack of secondary sex characteristics are seen at puberty (can be treated with hormone replacement therapy). Principal effects are development of small testicles and reduced fertility