Personality

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the id

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contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

The id contains biological impulses, is governed by thepleasure principle, and is characterized by primaryprocess thinking

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the superego

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Superego the part of the personality in Freud's theory that is responsible for making moral choices

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the ego

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the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

The ego manages the conflict between the id and reality. Itis governed by the reality principle and is characterized bysecondary process thinking.

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humanistic approaches and integrated personal experiences

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reject the idea of the unconscious.

personality driven by our immediate conscious experience of self, others and the environment.

self actualization - integrated and consistent sense of self.

freedom of choice and personal responsibility.

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trait theorists

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classify and measure behaviors that define personality in order to predict behavior.

cognitive, emotional and behavioral traits believed to be stable.

emphasis on observed behaviors, as opposed to the reason behind the behaviors.

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five factor model.

costa and mccrae.

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behaviour belongs to 5 comtinuums:

1. extrobersion

2. agreeableness

3. openness

4. neuroticism

5. conscientiousness

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personality shaped by learning history

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the way we think about consequences shapes our personality.

reinforcement history.

reinforcement value -- how much we desire or dread the consequences.

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what is personality?

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the collection of characteristic thoughts,feelings, and behaviors that make up a person

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how researchers assess personality

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objective methods i.e. structured interviews, behavioral assessment, personality questionnaires.

projective methods i.e. Rorschach (inkblot) test, thematic apperception test.

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behavioral assessment

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observers need extensive training in how to code behavior. multiple observers will often view and code the same sample of behavior. high levels of agreement or inter rater reliability suggests coding is occurring consistently. low levels of agreement suggests more training, or refinement of coding is required.

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cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS).

walter mischel & yuichi shoda.

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Behavior does not have to be stable and consistent.

behavior depends on - personal processing and interpretation, goals, expectancies and self control.

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behavioral signatures

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consistent ways of responding

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how does culture and gender produce differences in personality

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people from the same culture have similar personalities, but people from collectivist cultures have very different personalities to people from individualistic cultures.

gender schemas differ for males and females, and the way society views an individual based on their gender influences behavior.

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test reliability

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the degree to which a test score reflects the 'true' level of the trait being measured.

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3 means of assessing test reliability

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test retest reliability.

internal consistency or internal reliability.

inter-rater reliability.

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test retest reliability.

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correlation from repeated administrations of a test to the same person.

higher correlations indicate stability of the test measurement over time.

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internal consistency or internal reliability

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how well individual items within one measurement correlate.

higher correlations indicate they are all measuring the same construct.

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inter rater reliability

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observer based measurements.

higher correlations mean the trait or behavior observed is being recorded consistently.

reduces some of the bias associated with observer interpretations.

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types of test validity: face validity

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if items of a test measure the trait they are supposed to measure

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types of test validity: predictive or criterion validity

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how well scores on a test predict behavior in the real world

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types of test validity: convergent validity

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how well scores correlate with those designed to measure similar traits

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types of test validity: discriminant or divergent validity

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indicates that tests measuring different traits should not be correlated

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types of test validity: construct validity

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combination of all 4 previous types of validity

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generalisability

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degree to which a test retains validity across contexts

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biological basis of personality

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monozygotic twins are more similar in terms of personality than fraternal twins.

genetic factors - 40-50% responsible for traits.

genetic factors influence what people say about their personality and how they adjust behaviour.

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hans j eysenck

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introversion-extroversion and stability-instability.

extreme introverts chronically over aroused, seek to minimize external stimulation.

extreme extroverts chronically under aroused, seek external stimulation.

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Free Association

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in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

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psychoanalysis

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Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

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unconscious

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according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

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per-conscious

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information that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awareness

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pleasure principle

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the principle upon which the id operates, demanding immediate gratification of its urges

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reality principle

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tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet

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psychosexual stages

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the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

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oral stage

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Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 0-18 months; focus: oral cavity; task: transition from bottle/breast to solid food; conflict: id derives pleasure from sucking/excepting into mouth; if child fails to complete tasks, (s)he becomes fixated; fixations-underindulged oral-suspicious, sarcastic, pessimistic, trust issues; overindulged oral-clingy, optimistic, gullible, needy

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anal stage

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Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 18 months-3 years; focus: anus-retention/expulsion of species; task: to successfully learned toilet training; conflict: id derives pleasure from retention/expulsion, whereas ego and superego represents society the practical/societal pressures to control bodily functions; if child fails to complete the task,(s)he becomes fixated; fixations-anal expulsion-messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, defiant; anal-retentive-neat, precise, orderly, stingy, obstinate, meticulous, passive-aggressive

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phallic stage

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The third of Freud's psychosexual development in which genitals are the source of pleasure and the Oedipus Complex begins

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Oedipus complex

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according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

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identification

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the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

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latency stage

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Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development where sexuality is repressed in the unconscious and children focus on identifying with their same sex parent and interact with same sex peers.

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genital stage

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Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).

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fixation

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according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

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defense mechanisms

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in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

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repression

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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regression

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

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reaction formation

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

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projection

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

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rationalization

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defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

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displacement

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

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sublimation

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a defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed into socially admirable outlets, such as art

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collective unconscious

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Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

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projective tests

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a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger projection of one's inner thoughts and feelings

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thematic apperception test (TAT)

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A projective test developed by Henry Murray and his colleagues that involves creating stories about ambiguous scene that can be interpreted in a variety of ways.

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trait

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a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

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personality inventory

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a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors

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MMPI

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the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally used to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes

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empirically derived test

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a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

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self actualization

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according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

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unconditional positive regard

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according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

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self concept

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central to the person's behavior, consists of a person's beliefs/feelings about himself at any given time

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self esteem

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One's feelings of high or low self-worth.

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self serving bias

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A readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

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reciprocal determinism

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the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.

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individualism

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giving priority to one's own goals over group goals, and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

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collectivism

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giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

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learned helplessness

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the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

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positive psychology

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the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

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social-cognitive perspective

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Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context.

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spotlight effect

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overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

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terror management theory

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Proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death.