18: Nutrition And Metabolism

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Nutrients

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chemical substances supplied that a living thing needs to live

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Macronutrients

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carbs, proteins, fats

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Digestion

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breaks down nutrients to sizes that can be absorbed and transported in the blood stream

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Metabolism

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the ways the nutrients are altered chemically and used in anabolism/catabolism to support ADLs

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Anabolism

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the synthesis part of metabolism

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Catabolism

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the decomposition part of metabolism

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Essential nutrients

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nutrients that human cells cannot make

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Leptin

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regulates long term fat storage

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Chole Cystokinin

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tells your body youre full

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Carbs

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organic compounds, include sugars/starches. Used for energy to cells. 125 to 175 grams of carb intake is recommended per day. Average diet gets about 250g

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Sources of Polysaccharides

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starch, grains, vegetables, glycogen from meats

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Sources of Disaccharides

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Milk, sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, molasses

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Sources of Monosaccharides

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honey and fruit

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Cellulose

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provides bulk that muscular wall of the digestive system can push against

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Sources of fiber

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hemicellulose, pectin, lignin

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Glycogenesis

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formation of glycogen and occurs in the liver/muscles

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Glycogenolysis

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Break down of glycogen into glucose and occurs in most body cells

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Excess glucose

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if it is not able to be stored as glycogen it’s converted to fat

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Gluconeogenesis

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the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources and occurs in the liver

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Cells use some carbs to produce

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RNA & DNA

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Lipids

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organic fats, oils, phospholipids, and cholesterol FX to supply energy for cellular processes and to help build cellular structures

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Trilycerides

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found in plant and animal based food

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Saturated Fats

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found in meat

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Unsaturated Fat

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found in seeds, nuts, plant oils

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Cholesterol

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found in liver, egg yolks, whole milk, butter, cheese, and meat

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Gram for gram, fats contain more than _________ as much chemical energy as carbs or proteins

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Twice

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Before a triglycride molecule can release energy it must undergo

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Hydrolysis

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Digestion breaks triglycerides into

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fatty acids and glycerol

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Glycerol and fatty acids are transported in the

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lymph to the blood then to tissue

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Beta Oxidation

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series of reactions that convert some faty acids to Acetylcoenzyme A

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Fatty acid oxidases

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FX to break down fatty acids

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Excess Acetyl CoA

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Molecules react to form ketone bodies

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Glycerol

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used to synthesize glucose or enters metabolic pathways leading to the citric acid cycle. Can combine with Fatty acids to form fat molecules and stored in fat tissue.

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Liver

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can convert fatty acids to other types of fatty acids

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Essential fatty acids

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fatty acids that the liver cant make

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The liver uses free fatty acids to synthesize

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triglycerides, phospholipids, and lipoproteins

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The liver regulates cholesterol by

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synthesizing cholesterol and releasing it into the blood or by removing it from blood and excreting it into the bile

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Cholesterol

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is not an energy source but its used to build cell and organelle membranes and some hormones

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Lipid intake

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should not exceed 30% of diet. Dietary fats must supply the required amounts of fat soluble vitamins

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Proteins

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are polymers of amino acids. FX to make cellular structures, act as enzymes, antibodies, clotting factors, ect.

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Deamination

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is the removal of nitrogen containing portions from amino acids and occurs in the liver, produces uria

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Urea

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waste product from deamination

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Starvation

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using structural proteins to generate energy causing tissue wasting

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Protein Sources

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meat, fish, poultry, cheese, nuts, milk, eggs, cereal

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Essential amino acids

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amino acids the body cant make

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For growth and tissue repair to occur

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all twenty amino acids must be present in the body

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To maintain body tissues and promote growth/development

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complete proteins must contain adequate amounts of essential amino acids

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Incomplete proteins

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have too little of the essential amino acids and are unable to maintain human tissues or support normal growth/development

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Source of complete proteins

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milk, eggs, meat

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Source of incomplete proteins

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corn and legumes

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Nitrogen balance

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the amt of nitrogen taken is equal to the amt excreted

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Starving and nitrogen balance

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the person will have a negative nitrogen balance because amino acid oxidation exceeds the amount the diet replaces

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People with positive nitrogen balances

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growing children, pregnant women, or an athlete

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Protein requirements

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the amount required is based on body size, metabolic rate, and nitrogen balance. The recommended amount is 0.8G/Kg of weight

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Pregnant protein requirements

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pregnant women require 30 extra grams per day and nursing mothers require 20G/day

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Nutritional Edema

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results from a decrease in the level of plasma proteins need to maintain colloid osmotic pressure of plasma

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Energy suppliers

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carbs, fats, proteins

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If the diet is deficient of energy supplying nutrients

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structural molecules may be gradually consumed

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Obesity

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can be caused by excess intake of energy supplying nutrients

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Calories

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the amount of potential energy a food contains, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gram of water by 1 degree Celsius

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Bomb Calorimeter

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used to measure caloric contents of food, caloric values determined are a little higher than the amount of energy actually released because nutrients generally are not completely absorbed in GI tract

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Cellular oxidation

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yields about 4.1 calories from 1 Gram of carbs or proteins, and about 9.5 calories from one gram of fat

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Factors that influence energy needs

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basal metabolic rate, muscle activity, temp, rate of growth

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Basal metabolic rate

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rate that body expends energy under resting conditions. Indicates energy needed to support organ activity ie: brain, heart, liver, lungs ect. Generally about 1 calorie/Hr for each KG of weight Varies with sex, body size, temp, and endocrine gland activity

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Thyroid function tests

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can be used to estimate a person’s basal metabolic rate

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Maintaining the BMR

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requires the body’s greatest expenditure of energy

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People who require more calories

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pregnant women and growing children

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Energy balance

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exists when calorie intake equals calorie output

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Positive energy balance

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calorie intake exceeds the output, causes weight gain

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Negative energy balance

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calorie output exceeds input, causes weight loss

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Overweight

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exceeding desirable weight by 10% to 20%

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Obesity

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exceeding desirable weight by more than 20%

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Vitamins

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organic compounds other than carbs, lipids, and proteins. Required in small amts for normal metabolic processes but that body cells cannot make. Classified on solubility

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Provitamins

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precursors to vitamins

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Examples of Fat soluble vitamins

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Vitamin A, D, E, & K

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Examples of Water soluble vitamins

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Vitamin B and C

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Fat soluble vitamins

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stored in various tissues. Cooking or processing does not destroy them

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Vitamin A

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synthesized from carotenes and is stored in liver. Stable in heat, acids, bases, and unstable in light FX to help synthesize visual pigments, its needed for normal bone and teeth development and maintenance of epithelial cells

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Sources of Vitamin A

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liver, fish, milk, butter, leafy greens, yellow/orange veg & fruit

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Excess in Vitamin A

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nausea, headache, dizziness, hair loss, birth defects, night blindness, degeneration of epitheliam tissues

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Vitamin D

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group of steroids, stored in the liver, skin, brain, spleen, and bones Resistant to heat, oxidation, acids/bases FX to promote absorption of calcium for the development of teeth and bones

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Sources for Vitamin D are

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sun, milk, egg yolk, fish, liver oils, and fortified food

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Excess of vitamin D

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diarrhea, calcification of soft tissue, renal damage

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Deficiency of Vitamin D

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rickets, bone decalcification, and weakening

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Vitamin E

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resistant to heat and visible light but unstable in oxygen and UV light, stored in muscles and fat FX to prevent oxidation of Vitamin A/polyunsaturated fatty acids and to maintain stability of cell membranes

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Sources of Vitamin E

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cereal seeds, salad oil, margarine, fruits, nuts, vegetables

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Excess of Vitamin E

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hypertension

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Vitamin K

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resistant to heat but destroyed by acid/base and light, stored in liver Fx to promote blood clotting

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Deficiency of Vitamin K

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easy praising/bleeding

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Excess Vitamin K

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jaundice in newborns, hemolytic anemia, and hyperbillrubinemia

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Sources for Vitamin K

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Green leafy veg, egg yolk, pork liver, soy oil, tomatoes, and cauliflower

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Water soluble vitamins

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dissolve in water and generally are not stored in your body

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B1

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water soluble, also called thiamine, destroyed by heat and oxygen, FX to aid in oxidation of carbs and ribose synthsis

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Sources for B1 are

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lean meats, liver, eggs, whole grain cereal, and legumes

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Deficiencies of thiamine are

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muscular weakness and enlarged heart

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B2

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water soluble, also called riboflavin, stable to heat/acids. And oxidation, unstable in bases and UV light FX to help in oxidation of glucose and fatty acids

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Sources for B2

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meats, dairy, leafy greens, whole brain cereals

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Deficiencies for B2

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produce dermatitis and blurred vision

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Niacin

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water soluble vitamin, stable in heat, acids, and bases, synthesized from tryptophan Fx are to help oxidation of glucose and the synthesis of proteins, fats, and nucleic acids

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Sources of niacin

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liver, lean meats, peanuts, legumes

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Excess of Niacin

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cause acute toxicity, flushing, wheezing, vasodilation, headache, diarrhea, vomiting, can affect the liver

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Deficiencies for Niacin

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pellagra, photosensitive dermatitis, diarrhea, and mental disorders

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Pantothenic acid

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water soluble vitamin, destroyed by heat/acids/bases, FX to aid in oxidation of carbs and fats

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Sources of pantothenic acid

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meat, whole grain, legumes, milk, fruit/veg

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B6

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Water soluble vitamin, stable in heat/acid, meats, whole grain, legumes, milk, fruit, vegetables FX to promote synthesis of amino acids, niacin, antibodies, and nucleic acids

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Sources of B6

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liver, meats, banana, avocadoes, beans, peanuts, whole grain, egg yolk

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Excess of B6

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buring pain, numbness, clumsiness, paralysis

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B12

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also called cyanocobalmin, stable in heat, absorption regulated by intrinsic factor, FX: promotes synthesis of nucleic acids, metabolism of carbs, synthesis of myelin, & RBCs

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Sources of B12

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liver, meat, milk, eggs, cheese

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Deficiency of B12

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pernicious anemia

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Folic Acid

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water soluable, unstable in acid/heat/and base, stored in liver, FX: to promote metabolism of some amino acids, DNA, RBCs

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Sources of folic acid

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liver, leafy green veg, whole grains, legumes

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Deficiency of folic acid produces

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megaloblastic anemia

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Biotin

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water soluable, stable in heat, acids, light, and unstable in bases. FX: promote metabolism of amino acids , fatty acids, and makes nucleic acids

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Sources of biotin

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liver, egg, yolk, nuts, legumes, mushroom

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Vitamin C

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Also called ascorbic acid, stable in acids, unstable in heat, light, and base. FX: to promote synthesis of collagen, folic acid, metabolism of crtain amino acids, absorption of iron, and synthesis of hormones from cholesterol

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Sources of Vit C

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citrus fruit, tomatoes, potatoes, leafy greens

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Deficiency of Vit C

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scurvy, lowered resistance to infection, and slow wound healing

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Minerals

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inorganic elements that are essential, usually extracted from soil by plants, minerals are responsible for about 4%of body weight and are most concentrated in the bones and teeth. Usually incorporated in organic molecules,

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Fx of Minerals:

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FX: Minerals compose parts of the structural materials of all cells, assist enzymes, contribute to osmotic pressure of body fluids, help conduct nerve impulses, contract muscle fibers, coagulate blood, & maintain pH. 6. The physiologically active form of minerals is the ionized form.

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Calcium & phosphorus

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the most abundant of the major minerals accounting for nearly 75% by weight of the mineral elements in the body Other major minerals are potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, & magnesium.

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Calcium

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primarily distributed in bones & teeth

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Functions of calcium

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to serve as structural material for bones & teeth, to promote nerve impulse conduction, muscle fiber contraction, blood coagulation, membrane permeability, & activation of certain enzymes.

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Sources of calcium

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milk products, fish with bones, & leafy green vegetables

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Calcium deficiency in children

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causes stunted growth, misshapen bones, & enlarged wrists & ankles

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Calcium deficiency in adults

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may cause thinning bones.

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Phosphorus

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primarily distributed in bones & teeth

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Functions of phosphorus

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serve as structural materials for bones & teeth, & to promote nearly all metabolic reactions, synthesis of nucleic acids, proteins, some enzymes, & some vitamins. It is also a component of cell membranes & ATP

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Sources of phosphorus

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meats, cheeses, nuts, whole grain cereals, milk & legumes

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Potassium

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distributed widely throughout the body but mostly inside cells.

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FX of Potassium

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help maintain intracellular osmotic pressure & regulate pH, to promote metabolism, nerve impulse conduction, & muscle fiber contraction

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A deficiency of potassium

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muscular weakness, cardiac abnormalities, & edema.

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Sources of potassium

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avocados, dried apricots, meats, nuts, potatoes, & bananas.

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Sulfur

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distributed widely but is abundant in skin, hair, & nails.
FX of sulfur to serve as structural parts of certain amino acids, thiamine, insulin, biotin, & mucopolysaccharides

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Sources of sulfur

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meats, milk, eggs, & legumes.

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Sodium

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distributed widely but mostly occurs in extracellular fluids. It is also bound to organic salts of bone

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Functions of sodium

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to help maintain osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids & to regulate water movement. It also promotes nerve impulse conduction & muscle contraction & aids in regulation of pH & in transport of substances across cell membranes

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Excess of sodium

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hypertension & edema

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A deficiency of sodium

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nausea, muscle cramps, & convulsions

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Sources of sodium

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table salt, ham, sauerkraut, cheese, & graham crackers

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Chlorine

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distributed closely associated with sodium & in cerebrospinal fluid or gastric juice FX: to help maintain osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids, to regulate pH, & to maintain electrolyte balance. It also is essential for the formation of hydrochloric acid & aids in the transport of carbon dioxide by red blood cells.

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Sources of chlorine

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table salt, ham, sauerkraut, cheese, & graham crackers

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Magnesium

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distributed in bones.
FX: to promote metabolic reactions in mitochondria associated with ATP production & to help breakdown ATP to ADP

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Excess of magnesium

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diarrhea & a deficiency produces neuromuscular disturbances

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Sources of magnesium

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milk, dairy products, legumes, nuts, & leafy green vegetables.

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Trace Elements

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essential minerals found in minute amounts, examples of trace elements include iron, manganese, copper, iodine, cobalt, zinc, fluorine, selenium, & chromium

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Iron

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distributed in blood, liver, spleen, & bone marrow. FX to promote formation of hemoglobin, vitamin A, & various enzymes

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Sources of iron

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liver, meats, apricots, raisins, cereals, legumes, & molasses.

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Excess/Deficiency of iron

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produces liver damage & a deficiency produces anemia

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Manganese

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distributed in liver, kidneys, & the pancreas. FX: are to synthesize certain enzymes

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Sources of manganese:

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nuts, legumes, cereals, & leafy green vegetables

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Copper

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is distributed in liver, heart & brain FX: to promote hemoglobin synthesis, bone development, melanin production,& myelin formation.

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Sources of copper

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liver, oysters, crabmeat, nuts, cereals, & legumes

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Iodine

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is concentrated in the thyroid gland FX: to synthesize thyroid hormones

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Sources of iodine

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iodized table salt

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Excess/Deficiency of iodine

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decreased synthesis of thyroid hormones & a deficiency produces goiter.

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Cobalt

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is widely distributed FX: to synthesize several enzymes.

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Sources of cobalt

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liver, meats, & milk

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Excess/Deficiency of cobalt

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excess produces heart disease & a deficiency produces pernicious anemia.

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Zinc

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distributed in liver, kidneys, & the brain FX: to synthesize several enzymes

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Sources of zinc

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meats, cereals, legumes, nuts, & vegetables

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Excess/Deficiency of zinc

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excess produces slurred speech & problems walking & a deficiency produces depressed immunity, loss of taste & smell, & learning difficulties.

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Fluorine

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distributed in teeth & bones FX: to serve as structural materials for teeth

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Sources of fluorine

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fluoridated water

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An excess of fluorine

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produces mottled teeth

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Selenium

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distributed liver & kidneys FX: to promote formation of various enzymes

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Sources of selenium

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meats, fish, & cereals

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Excess of selenium

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produces vomiting & fatigue

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Chromium

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distributed widely FX: to promote metabolism of carbohydrates.

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Sources of chromium

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liver, meats, & wine

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An adequate diet provides

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sufficient energy, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins, & minerals to support optimal growth, to maintain & repair body tissues

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RDA

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Recommended Daily Allowance

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Malnutrition

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poor nutrition that results from a lack of essential nutrients or a failure to utilize them, imbalance of nutrients

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Undernutrition

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is an inadequate intake of nutrients, not eating enough nutrients

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Overnutrition

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excess nutrient intake

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Primary malnutrition

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malnutrition from diet alone

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Secondary malnutrition

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when an individual’s characteristics make a normally adequate diet insufficient.

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Starvation

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a healthy person can stay alive for 50 to 70 days without food, seen in hunger strikes, in prisoners of concentration camps, & in sufferers of psychological eating disorders

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After one day without eating

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the body’s reserves of sugar & starch are gone

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By the third day of starvation

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hunger ceases as the body uses energy from fat reserves

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During starvation

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metabolism slows to conserve energy, blood pressure drops, the pulse slows, & chills set in. Eventually skin becomes dry & hair falls out because the proteins in these structures are broken down to release amino acids that are used for more vital functions in the body. Near the end of starvation, the human is blind, deaf, & emaciated.

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Marasmus

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is a lack of nutrients .Children under the age of two with marasmus often die of measles & other infections because their immune systems are very weak

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Kwashiorkor

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characterized by protruding bellies & develops when a child has recently been weaned from breast milk

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Ascites

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is the swelling of a child’s belly due to a lack of plasma proteins

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Anorexia Nervosa

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self imposed starvation, most common in adolescent females treatments of anorexia nervosa are intravenous feedings & therapy.

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Bulimia

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a person binges & purges food, causes tooth decay

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Life span changes

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with age dietary requirements generally remain the same. Changing nutrition with age often reflects effects of medical conditions, social or economic circumstances.

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Medical conditions that affect the ability to obtain adequate nutrition

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depression, tooth decay, periodontal disease, diabetes mellitus, lactose intolerance, & alcoholism