A&p Nutrition And Metabolism

Front 1

the formation of glucose from glycogen is

Back 1

glycogenolysis

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the net gain of ATP from the complete metabolism (aerobic) of glucose is

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38

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cellular respiration

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oxidation of substances by which energy is released in usable form to the cells

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during aerobic respiration, electrons are passed down the electron transport chain and...

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water is formed

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metabolic rate is relatively low in

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old age

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in a temperature climate under ordinary circumstances, the greatest loss of body heat occurs through

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radiation

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functions of the liver

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glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

synthesis of cholesterol

detoxification of alcohol and drugs

deamination of amino acids

Front 8

amino acids are essential to the body for these reasons

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production of some hormones

production of antibodies

formation of most structural materials

Front 9

a person has been on a hunger strike for seven days.

compared to normal, he has

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increases release of fatty acids from adipose

ketosis

and ketonuria

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transamination is a chemical process by which

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a protein is synthesized

Front 11

three days after the removal of the pancreas from an animal, the researcher finds a persistent increase in

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acetoacetic acid concentration in the blood

urine volume

blood glucose

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hunger, appetite, obesity, and physical activity are interrelated. Thus...

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in all cases of obesity, the energy content of the ingested food has exceeded the energy expenditure of the body

Front 13

Body temperature regulation is

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influenced by temperature receptors in the skin

influenced by the temperature of the blood perfusing the heat regulation centers of the brain

subject to both neural and hormonal control

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What yields the greatest caloric value per gram?

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fats

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essential nutrients

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those that are inadequately synthesized by body cells and must be ingested in the diet

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carbohydrates are obtained primarily from

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plant products

Front 17

monosaccharides from carbohydrates are converted to

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glucose

by the liver

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monosaccharides are used primarily for

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cellular fuel

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recommended CARBOHYDRATE intake

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45-65% of daily caloric intake

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most dietary lipids are

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triglycerides

Front 21

major sources of cholesterol are

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egg yolks, meats, milk products

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linoleic and linolenic acids are

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essential fatty acids

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triglycerides provide

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reserve energy

cushion body organs

insulate the body

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phospholipids are used to

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synthesize plasma membranes and myelin

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cholesterol is used in

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plasma membranes

as the structural basis of vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts

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fat intake should represent

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35% or less of caloric intake

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animal products provide

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all 10 essential amino acids

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plant products

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lack one or more of the essential amino acids

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amino acids are

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the structural building blocks of the body and of important regulatory molecules

Front 30

protein synthesis will occur if

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all essential amino acids are present

and if

sufficient carbohydrates (or fat) calories are available to produce ATP

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nitrogen balance occurs when

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protein synthesis equals protein loss

Front 32

recommended dietary intake of protein (g per day)

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.8 g per kg of body weight

Front 33

vitamins mostly act as

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coenzymes

Front 34

the richest sources of vitamins are

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whole grains

vegetables

legumes

fruit

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vitamins made in the body

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B

D

K

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water soluble vitamins

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B and C

are NOT stored to excess in the body

Front 37

fat soluble vitamins

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K
A
D
E

all except for K are stored and can accumulate to toxic amounts

Front 38

examples of minerals needed

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calcium
phosphorus
potassium
sulfur
sodium
chloride
magnesium

Front 39

minerals are used to

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mineralize bone

bind to organic compounds or exist as ions in body fluids, where they play various roles in cell processes and metabolism

Front 40

richest sources of minerals are

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animal products
vegetables
seeds
legumes

Front 41

metabolic processes are either

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anabolic

catabolic

Front 42

energy is RELEASED when organic compounds are

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oxidized

Front 43

cellular oxidation is accomplished primarily by the

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removal of hydrogen (electrons)

Front 44

two important coenzymes in oxidation reactions are

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NAD+

FAD

Front 45

phosphorylation of glucose on entry into cells effectively...

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traps it into most tissue cells

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glycolysis is a

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reversible pathway in which GLUCOSE is converted to two PYRUVIC AVID molecules

two molecules of reduced NAD+ are formed

there is a net gain of 2 ATP

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pyruvic acid under aerobic conditions..

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enters the Krebs cycle

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pyruvic acid under anaerobic conditions

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is reduced to lactic acid

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Krebs cycle

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fueled by pyruvic acid

pyruvic acid is concerted to acetyl CoA

CoA is then oxidized and decarboxylated

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complete oxisation of two pyruvic acid molecules yields

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6C02

8 NADH + H+

2 FADH2

net gain of 2 ATP

Front 51

in the ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN..

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reduced coenzymes are oxidized by delivering hydrogen to a series of oxidation-reduction acceptors

hydrogen is split into hydrogen ions and electrons

the energy stored in the electrochemical proton gradient drives H+ back through ATP synthase, which uses the enery to form ATP

H+ and electrons are combined with oxygen to form water

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for each glucose molecule oxidized to carbon dioxide and water..

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there is a net gain of 38 ATP:

4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation

34 ATP from oxidative phosphorylation

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gluconeogenesis

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the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules

occurs in the liver when blood glucose levels begin to fall

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fatty acids are oxidized by

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beta oxidation into acetic acid fragments

these are bound to coenzyme A and enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA

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absorptive state

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glucose is the major energy source

needed structural and functional molecules are made

excesses of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids are stored as glycogen and fat

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events of the absorptive state are controlled by

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insulin, which enhances the entry of glucose into cells and accelerates its use for ATP synthesis or storage as glyocgen or fat

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postabsorptive state

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the period when bloodborne fuels are provided by breakdown of energy reserves

glucose is made available to the blood by glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and gluconeogenesis

glucose sparing begins and, if fasting is prolonged, the brain also begins to metabolize ketone bodies

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evens of the postabsorptive state are controlled by

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glucagon and the sympathetic nervous system, which mobilize glycogen and fat reserves and trigger gluconeogenesis

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glyco genesis

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when glycolysis is "turned off" by high ATP levels, glucose molecules are combined in long chains to form glycogen, the animal carbohydrate storage product

begins when glucose entering cells is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phospate and then converted to its isomer, glucose-1-phosphate

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glyco genolysis

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when blood glucose levels ddrop, glyocgen lysis occurs

the enyzme gylcogen phosphorylase oversees phosphorylation and cleavage of glyocgen to release glucose-1-phosphate, which is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate, a form that can enter the glycolytic pathway to be oxidized for energy

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gluco NEOgenesis

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when too little glucose is available to stoke the "metabolic furnace", glycerol and amino acids are converted to glucose

takes place when dietary sources and glucose reserves have been depleted and blood glucose levels are beginning to drop

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beta oxidation

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the initial phase of fatty acid oxidation

occurs in the mitochondria

net result is that the fatty acid chains are broken apart into two-carbon acetic acid fragments and coenzymes are reduced

carbon in the beta position is oxidized during the process and cleavage of the fatty acid in each case occurs between the alpha and beta carbons

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lipolysis

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the breakdown of stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids

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deamination

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removal of an amine group from an organic compound

the liberated NH3 molecules are combined with CO2, yielding urea and water

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protein digestion is initiated in the stomach by...

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activated PEPSIN

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cholecystokinin

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released by the small intestine

stimulates the gallbladder to contract and the hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax

allowing bile to enter the duodenum

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functions of the large intestine

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absorption of water, some electrolytes, and vitamins made by enteric bacteria

defecation

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chemical digestion is accomplished by

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hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes

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most chemical digestion is done in the

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small intestine

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the peritoneal cavity, like the pleural and pericardial cavities, is

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a potential space containing serous fluid

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obstruction of the hepatopancreatic sphincter impairs digestion by reducing the availability of

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pancreatic juice and bile

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the action of an enzyme is influenced by

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its chemical surroundings

its specific substrate

the presence of needed cofactors or coenzymes

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carbohydrates are acted on by

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amylase

maltase

sucrase

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the parasympathetic nervous system influences digestion by

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stimulating peristalsis and secretory activity

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the digestive juice product containing enzymes capable of digesting all four major foodstuff categories is

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pancreatic

Front 76

the vitamin associated with calcium absorption is

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D

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the site of production of VIP and cholecystokinin is

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the small intestine

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characteristics of the large intestine

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it is divided into ascending, transverse, and descending portions

it contains abundant bacteria, some of which synthesize certain vitamins

it absorbs much of the water and salts remaining in the wastes

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the gallbladder

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stores and concentrates bile

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the sphincter between the stomach and the duodenum is

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the PYLORIC sphincter

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the protein molecule will be ingested by enzymes secreted by

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the pancreas and stomach

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the protein molecule must be digested before it can be transported to and utilized by the cells because

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the protein is too large to be readily absorbed

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the products of protein digestion enter the bloodstream largely through cells lining

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the small intestine

Front 84

before blood carrying the products of protein digestion reaches the heart, it first passes through capillary networks in

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the liver

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having passed through the regulatory organ, the products of protein digestion are circulated throughout the body.

they will enter individual body cells as a result of

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active transport

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defecation

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spinal cord-mediated parasympathetic reflex that causes the sigmoid colon and the rectum to contract

during defecation, the muscles of the rectum contract to expel the feces

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Valsalva's maneuver

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voluntarily closing the glottis and contracting our diaphragm and abdominal wall muscles to increase the intra-abdominal pressure

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the largest gland in the body

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liver

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liver's function

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digestive: to produce bile for export to the duodenum

also to filter and process the nutrient-rich blood delivered to it

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liver anatomy

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4 primary lobes

liver lobules

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vomiting

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the diaphragm and abdominal wall muscles contract, increasing intra-abdominal pressure, the cardiac sphincter relaxes, and the soft palate rises to close off the nasal passages

as a result, the stomach contents are forced upward through the esophagus and pharynx and out the mouth

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deglutition

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swallowing

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peristalsis

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swallowing