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130 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Identify the Kingdom that contains the protozoa.
Kingdom Protista
List two modes of nutrition utilized by protozoa.
Ingestion and Absorption
List two types of asexual production that can occur in the protozoa.
Mitosis and Schizogony (Multiple nuclear divisions)
How does conjugation in protozoa differ from conjugation in bacteria?
Conjugation in protozoa has DNA being transferred both ways instead of just one way. This is called a reciprocal exchange.
Trophozoite
Feeding and reproduction stage of protozoa. This stage is responsible for infections.
STD
Sexually Transmitted Disease
Cyst
Thick-walled stage of protozoa. It allows for survival outside of the host and transmission to a new host. They are more resistant at this stage.
Fecal-Oral Transmission
A cyst gets into a food or water supply, it is ingested by a host (most likely a human), and then produces more trophozoites.
Definitive Host
Host in which sexual reproduction occurs, and contains the mature forms of the protozoa.
Intermediate Host
Host in which asexual reproduction occurs and contains the immature forms of the protozoa.
Pellicle
Rigid protein layer that surrounds the cell membrane of the ciliates. It helps to maintain shape.
List the four phyla of protozoa and the type of motility found in each.
a) Phylum Sarcodina: Move by pseudopods
b) Phylum Mastigophora: Move by flagella
c) Phylum Ciliophora: Move by cilia.
d) Phylum Apicomplexa: Do not move
Which of the four phyla contain members that have a macronucleus and a micronucleus?
Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates)
Which of the four phyla contain members that lack a mitochondria?
Phylum Mastigophora (Flagellates)
Which of the four phyla contain members that are all parasitic?
Phylum Apicomplexa (nonmotile)
Which of the four phyla contain members that have the most complex structure?
Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)
Which of the four phyla contain members that are capable of phagocytosis?
Phylum Sarcodina (pseudopods)
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Trypanosoma Gambiense.
Phylum Mastigophora; transmitted by the tsetse fly of Africa; causes African sleeping sickness; they move from the blood to the human's CNS, causing a coma.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Balantidium Coli.
Phylum Ciliophora; cysts are transmitted by fecal-oral infection; trophozoites feed on the lining of the colon, causing ciliary dysentery or balantidiasis.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Entameba histolytica.
Phylum Sarcodina; cysts are transmitted fecal-orally; trophozoites feed on the lining of the intestine and may invade liver causing amoebic dysentary.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Giardia Lamblia.
Phylum Mastigophora; cysts are transmitted in water; adults adhere to lining of the small intestines and block absorption, causing Giardiasis or Hiker's Diarrhea.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Plasmodium.
Phylum Apicomplexa; transmitted by female Anopheles mosquito; infected RBC's to cause Malaria.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Trypanosoma Cruzi.
Phylum Mastigophora; transmitted by the bite of kissing bugs (usually around the mouth); they infect the blood, heart, and CNS; causes Chagas' disease.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Toxoplasma Gondii.
Phylum Apicomplexa; transmitted by fecal-oral route from cat litter or rare beef which is contaminated; causes Toxoplasmosis, which can cross the placenta to create congenital birth defects.
Identify the phylum, method of transmission, and the type of disease caused by Trichomonas Vaginalis.
Phylum Mastigophora; sexually transmitted; infects the vagina of females and urethra of males; causes Trichomoniasis which includes a greenish discharge containing trophozoites.
Identify the following concerning malaria:
a) Definitive Host- Female Anopheles mosquito because sexual reproduction occurs.
b) Intermediate Host- Humans because asexual reproduction occurs.
c) Causes of Chills and Fever: The lysis of RBC's which release merozoites; occurs in 48-72 hour increments.
d) Sporozoites- Enter human in saliva of mosquito.
e) Gametocytes- Merozoites in the human RBC's will sometimes develop into gametocytes, which, when take in by the mosquito, develop into egg and sperm.
What are helminths?
Parasitic worms that can use humans as hosts.
Cuticle
A protective unicellular covering over the helminths.
Incomplete Digestive Tract
Digestive tract only has one opening.
Complete Digestive Tract
Digestive tract has an opening for absorption and excretion.
Monecius (Hermaphroditic)
Each adult contains both ovaries and testes.
Diecious
Each adult has either ovaries or testes.
Infestation
Invasion of human host by macroscopic parasites such as helminths.
Identify the three divisions of the body of an adult tapeworm and list their functions.
a) Scolex- Rounded end with suckers and can have hooks for attachment.
b) Neck- Short section distal to the scolex. This is the site of asexual budding which produced the next section's proglottids.
c) Strobila- Section that comprises all of the proglottids. This can make the tapeworm up to 20 feet long.
Identify and describe three types of proglottids found in the tapeworms.
a) Immature Proglottids- These are nearest the neck with no mature ovaries or testes.
b) Mature Proglottids- These contain sperm and eggs. The sperm from the testes will fertilize the eggs from the ovaries.
c) Gravid Proglottids- These contain an expanded uterus filled with fertilized eggs. These proglottids pass out in the host's feces.
List three major differences between the flatworms and the roundworms.
a. Flatworms
1) Flattened Bodies
2) Monecious (Hermaphroditic)
3) Incomplete Digestive Tract
b. Roundworms
1) Cylindrical Bodies
2) Diecious
3) Complete Digestive Tract
Identify the two groups of flatworms and list two differences between the species in them.
a. Flukes
1) Small Leak-Like Bodies
2) Incomplete Digestive Tract

b. Tapeworms
1) Long Ribbon-Like Bodies
2) No Digestive Tract
Which flatworms are diecious?
Schistosoma (blood fluke)
Cystercercus (Bladderworm)
Encysted Larvae
Miracidium
Ciliated larvae of a fluke. Can develop in the snail or enter the snail.
Cercaria
Tadpole-like Larvae
Microfilaria
Microscopic Larvae
Hydatid Cyst
Cyst containing the larval stages of the Hydatid tapeworms. Can be as large as an orange.
What are the two common intermediate hosts for flukes?
Fish & Snails
Identify the common name of Clonorchis sinesis and briefly describe its life cycle.
Oriental Liver Fluke- The adults live in human bile ducts. They produce fertilized eggs that move out in the feces. The eggs are then eaten by snails in untreated water supplies. The larvae then develop in the snail by asexual reproduction. They grow older into new larval stages, and then the cercariae leave the snail and burrow into a fish. New larvae that are encysted develop in the fish. A human will eat the raw or under cooked fish, and the larvae migrate to the bile ducts and mature.
List the common name for Schistosoma and explain how it enters the human host.
Blood Fluke. Lives in water, burrows through the skin into the host.
List the common name for Taenia Solium and explain how it enters the human host.
Pork Tapeworm. Humans ingest eggs from infested pork.
List the common name for Echinococcus Granulosis and explain how it enters the human host.
Hydatid Tapeworm. Humans ingest eggs from hands that have been contaminated with dog saliva.
List the common name for Enterobius Vermicularis and explain how it enters the human host.
Pinworm. Eggs are easily scattered around homes of an infected person and are ingested by other people.
List the common name for Necator Americanus and explain how it enters the human host.
Hookworm. Larvae live in the soil and burrow through the skin of the feet and into the blood.
List the common name for Tricinella Spiralis and explain how it enters the human host.
Trichina Worm. Humans ingest infested pork.
Identify the common name of Taenia saginata and briefly describe its life cycle.
Beef Tapeworm. Adults are attached to the human small intestine. The overly mature gravid proglottids pass out in the human feces. The proglottids or fertilized eggs are then eat by a cow. Bladderworms develop in the muscles of the cow. Raw or under cooked beef is then eaten by the human that contains the larvae. Stomach acid of the human causes the scolex of the tapeworm to evert and attach to the small intestinal lining. Adults then develop in the small intestine.
How are filarial worms transmitted to humans?
They are transmitted by arthropods (insects).
Identify the disease caused by Dirofilaria Immitis and Dracununculus Medinensis.
a) Dirofilaria Immitis- Causes dog heartworm.
b) Dracununculus Medinensis- Causes guinea worm.
Identify the common name of Ascaris Lumbricoides and briefly describe its life cycle.
Common Intestinal Roundworm. These worms are diecious. The adults live and mate in the human small intestine. The female lays thousand of eggs. The fertilized eggs pass out in the feces. A human ingests the eggs probably from an untreated water supply. Eggs hatch and larvae burrow into the blood. The larvae then burst out into the alveoli of the lungs, are coughed up, then swallowed. They are once again in the small intestine and begin to mature and to mate.
Identify the two major groups of arthropods and explain how they can be differentiated.
a) Arachnids- Animals with 4 pair of legs. They include spiders, mites, and ticks.

b) Insects- Animals with 3 pairs of legs. They include bees, flies, and lice.
Identify four harmful effects of arthropods and list one example of each.
a) They are vectors. This means they can transmit pathogens to humans. (mosquito)
b) They can be hosts for parasites.
c) Some can produce infestations (chiggers, scabies)
d) Some can produce toxins and serious allergic reactions. (bees, wasps)
Nonspecific Defenses
These produce the same response regardless of pathogen.
Specific Defenses
The response is different for each pathogen. This is involved in immune responses.
Pyrogens
Proteins that can come from either pathogens or leukocytes that cause the human thermostat to be set at a higher temperature and in turn causes the body temperature to increase.
Complement
A group of over 30 plasma proteins. They work in a chain activating each other.
Margination
The process of leukocytes sticking to the capillary wall.
Diapedesis
The process of leukocytes squeezing between the cells of the capillary walls into the tissues.
Pus
Fluid of dead leukocytes
MPS
Mononuclear Phagocytic System. Includes all the phagocytes except neutrophils.
Chemotaxis
Chemical attraction of phagocytes to microbes.
Briefly explain how Skin helps protect against disease.
Can physically block pathogens. pH of the skin can inhibit some pathogens that cannot survive in lower pH.
Briefly explain how Mucous Membranes helps protect against disease.
Secrets a mucous that works like flypaper, entrapping microbes.
Briefly explain how Saliva and Lacrimal Fluid helps protect against disease.
Can kill some gram positive bacteria.
Briefly explain how Gastric Juice helps protect against disease.
pH of 2 kills some bacteria and breaks down their toxins.
Briefly explain how Inflammation helps protect against disease.
Destroys pathogens by phagocytosis and confines pathogens through clotting.
Briefly explain how Phagocytes helps protect against disease.
Engulf and destroy microbes.
Briefly explain how Interleukin-1 helps protect against disease.
Endogenous pyrogen that causes fever which will inhibit or kill pathogens.
Briefly explain how Opsonins helps protect against disease.
This protein increases adherence to phagocytes.
List three groups of phagocytes based on location.
a) Blood- Neutrophils and Monocytes
b) Loose Connective Tissues- Wandering Microphages
c) Organs- Fixed Microphages
Describe the four steps in phagocytosis.
1) Chemotaxis- This is the chemical attraction of phagocytes to microbes.
2) Adherence- This includes the contact between phagocyte and microbe. It is facilitated by glue-like proteins called Opsonins.
3) Ingestion- Cell projections called pseudopods surround and enclose the microbe in a phagosome.
4) Digestion- Lysosome (a digestive enzyme) fuses with the phagosome forming a phagolysosome. The enzyme break down the microbe.
List the cardinal signs of inflammation.
a) Redness
b) Heat
c) Swelling
d) Pain
Describe the events that occur during an inflammation.
a) Chemical mediators are released. Then phagocytic migration occurs where the phagocytes are squeezing through the capillaries to get to the infected area. Then phagocytosis of the microbes occurs. And finally tissue repair occurs.
Describe two effects produced by mediators of inflammation (DISCUSSION QUESTION)
a) Local Vasodilation- Increases the blood flow to the area causing redness and heat.
b) Increased Capillary Permeability- Increases fluid loss causing swelling, pain, and local clotting.
c) Chemotaxis- Increases adherence of phagocytes to microbes.
List two benefits of inflammation.
a) It can destroy pathogens by phagocytosis.
b) It can inhibit pathogens by clotting.
What change in temperature occurs during chills?
An increase in body temperature creates a chill effect.
Identify three benefits of moderate fevers.
a) Inhibits multiplication of pathogens.
b) Intensifies action of interferons.
c) Speeds up tissue repair.
List two mechanisms for activating the complement system.
a) Classical System of Activation- Antibody Reactions
b) Alternative System of Activation- Cell wall components of bacteria and fungi, and lectins.
List three effects of complement activation.
a) Triggers inflammation
b) Increases phagocytosis
c) Cytolysis (lysis of cells)
List three ways in which normal flora protects the body against disease.
a) Compete with pathogens for space and nutrients.
b) Make local environment unfavorable for pathogens.
c) Produce chemicals that kill or inhibit pathogens.
Explain the origin of B cells and T cells.
a) B Cells- Originate in the red bone marrow.
b) T Cells- Originate in the thymus gland.
Antigen
Molecules that produce immune response.
Haptens
Small molecules that can attach to large molecules or cells and stimulate immune responses,
Antibody
Also called gamma globulins or immunoglobulins. They are proteins in some immune responses. They can combine with an antigen against which they are produced.
Clonal Selection
Production of a large close of identical cells for the immune response.
Apotosis
Death B or T cells not exposed to antigens.
Cytokines
Protein produced by T cells. They are responsible for their immune responses.
Primary Response
The first contact an antigen ever has with a certain pathogen.
Secondary Response
The subsequent contact after the first with a certain pathogen.
Humoral Immunity
Immunity that occurs in the humors (body fluids). Occurs with B cell responses.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Immunity that results from T cell activity.
Attenuation
Microbes are alive, but are weakened. The use of different hosts than normal, lowers the microbe's virulence so they can no longer produce disease.
Toxoid
Weakened exotoxins used in vaccines.
Identify the types of molecules that act as antigens.
They are usually molecules that make up microbes.
Describe the structure of a typical antibody.
They have a basic structure called a monomer. It is made up of 4 polypeptide chains, 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains. These chains are held together by disulfide bonds. These chains form a Y shape. In the monomer, there are two portions: the variable portion and the constant portion. The variable portion combines with antigens and is different in each antibody. The constant portion is the same for all antibodies in a class.
Give two other names for antibodies.
Gamma globulins and immunogloblins (Ig)
Explain six different types of antigen-antibody reactions:
a) Agglutination- Clumping of large antigens. It is used in blood typing.
b) Precipitation- Soluble antigens converted to insoluble forms.
c) Toxin Neutralization- Removes damaging effect of toxins.
d) Virus Neutralization- Antibodies combine with sites of viruses blocking attachment and infection.
e) Complement Fixation- Triggers complement chain.
f) Opsonization- Antibodies coat microbes enhancing phagocytosis.
Identify the percentage, structure, and function for each of the following: IgA
Dimer (two) comprised of 15% Ig's. Found in secretion.
Identify the percentage, structure, and function for each of the following: IgD
Monomer on B cells. Involved in B cell responses. Comprised of 1% Ig's.
Identify the percentage, structure, and function for each of the following: IgE
Monomer on basophils and mast cells that initiates allergic reactions. Comprised of 0.002% of Ig's.
Identify the percentage, structure, and function for each of the following: IgG
Monomer comprised of 80% of Ig's. This is the most common and only class that can cross the placenta.
Identify the percentage, structure, and function for each of the following: IgM
Pentameter comprised of 5-10% Ig's. This is the largest molecule.
Antigenic Determination
Areas of antigen that produce immune responses. Also called epitopes.
Constant Portion of an Antibody
Part of an antibody that combines with an antigen. It is different for each type of antibody.
Variable Portion of an Antibody
Part of an antibody that is the same for all antibodies in the same class.
APC
Macrophages and other cells that process and present antigens to T cells.
Activated B Cell
A specific B cell is exposed to an antigen, becoming activated.
Plasma Cell
After the activated B cell divides, one of the clones that are produced is a plasma cell that is involved in the primary response.
B Memory Cell
After the activated B cell divides, one of the clones that are produced is a memory cell. These are involved in secondary responses.
Cytotoxic T Cell
Lyse and destroy foreign cells and virus-infected cells. These are involved in the rejection of grafts and transplants.
Helper T Cell
Increase activity of cytotoxic T cells, and are required for some B cell responses. They increase antibody production by B cells and are the primary targets of the HIV virus.
Suppressor T Cell
These decrease activity of cytotoxic T cells and inhibit antibody production by B cells. They prevent too strong of an immune response.
T Memory Cell
These remain in the body and produce secondary responses to the same antigen.
List four differences between primary B cell response and the secondary B cell response.
a) Secondary is faster than the primary response
b) Secondary is stronger than the primary response. There are more antibodies produced.
c) Secondary is more sensitive that the primary response. Less of the antigen is required to initiate a response.
d) Secondary lasts longer than the primary response.
Identify four types of cell-mediated antigens:
a) Protozoa
b) Fungi
c) Grafted or Transplanted Cells
d) Intracellular bacterial or viral pathogens.
Innate Immunity
Non-susceptibility not due to immune responses
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
Antibodies pass from mother to baby across the placenta or in the colostrum.
Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Created due to exposure to pathogenic antigens during infection.
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
Created due to antibodies received from another person. This immunity is very short-term.
Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
Created due to immunization using vaccines.
Identify two types of antigens found in whole-unit vaccines.
a) Live attenuated microbes (antigens)
b) Inactivated microbes (antigens)
Identify two types of antigens found in subunit vaccines.
a) Purified Antigens
b) Genetically Engineered Antigens
List five functions of cytokines.
a) Attract phagocytes.
b) Prevent phagocytes from leaving an area.
c) Increase phagocytic activity.
d) Multiplication of T and B cells.
e) Can be interferons that inhibit viral infections.
Identify the primary targets of the virus which causes AIDS.
Helper T Cells
What is a conjugated vaccine?
a) A capsular antigen combined with a toxoid.
b) It increases a response in children.
c) HiB vaccine for meningitis is an example.