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99 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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lexical categories
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noun, verb, adj, prep, adv
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nonlexical categories
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det, deg (adj), aux (verb), conj
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NP
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(Det) N (PP)
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VP
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(adv) V (NP)
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AP
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(Deg) A (PP)
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PP
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(Deg) P (NP)
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IP
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NP I VP
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substitution test
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replacement using a pro-form (they, it, there, do so) to test correct grouping
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movement test
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some phrases can be moved as a single unit to another part of the sentence
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coordination test
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words form a constituent if they can be joined using a conjunction
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Bar Levels (NP)
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NP > (Det) N'
N' > (AdjP) N' or N' (PP) N' > N (PP) |
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Bar Levels (VP)
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VP > (AdvP) V'
V' > V' ({AdvP/PP}) V' > V (NP) |
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Bar Levels (Adj)
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AdjP > (Deg) Adj'
Adj' > Adj' Adj' > Adj (PP) |
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Bar Levels
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PP > (Deg) P'
P' > P' (PP) P' > P (NP) |
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Specifier Rule
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XP > (YP) X'
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Adjunct Rule
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X' > (ZP) X' or X' (ZP)
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Complement Rule
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X' > X (WP)
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Subcategorization
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different verbs take different complements
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Complement Clauses
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CP > (?) C IP
embedded clause (CP) within a sentence that, if, whether |
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Transformations
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merge / move
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Move operation
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after merge op
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Merge operation
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merge to tree form
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Deep Structure
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before move op
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Surface Structure
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after move op, inversion leaves trace (t)
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Do-Insertion
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if no aux, do-insertion instead
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Wh-movement
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inversion moves I-to-C, wh-word moves to specifier of C as triangle
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Head direction (final vs. initial)
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initial (english, french) SVO
final (tamil, japanese) SOV |
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verb raising
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french has V-to-I movement, english does not (except for be)
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coordination
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XP > XP conj XP
X' > X' conj X' X > X conj X |
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pragmatics
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the study of how language is used to communicate within its situational context
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implicature
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something is implied without actually saying it
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cooperative principle
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participants in a conversation are cooperating with each other
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Grice's Maxims: Quality
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contributions ought to be true
1. do not say what you believe to be false 2. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence |
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Grice's Maxims: Quantity
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contributions should be as informative as required; not saying either too little or too much
1. make your contribution as informative as is required 2. do not make your contribution more informative than required |
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Grice's Maxims: Relation/Relevance
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contributions should relate to the purposes of the exchange
1. be relevant |
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Grice's Maxims: Manner
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contributions should be perspicuous- in particular, they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity
1. avoid obscurity of expression 2. avoid ambiguity 3. be brief 4. be orderly |
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semantics
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the study of linguistic meaning
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lexical ambiguity
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a word has more than one possible meaning
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structural ambiguity
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a phrase or sentence has more than one possible meaning
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synonymy
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two words have the same meaning in some or all contexts
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antonymy
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words contrast in one aspect of their meaning; opposites
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binary antonyms
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exhaust all possibilities
ex. dead / alive |
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gradable antonyms
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opposite ends of a spectrum
ex. hot / cold ; black / white |
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converse antonyms
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describe a relationship from opposite perspectives
ex. above / below ; win / lose |
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hyponyms
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a word that contains the meaning of a more general word (the hypernym or superordinate)
ex. oak is a hyponym of tree mare is a hyponym of horse |
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superordinate
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a general word that includes a variety of words within its definition
ex. flower, color |
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polysemy
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word has two or more RELATED senses
ex. screen: cinema, tv, fire |
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homophony
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word has two or more UNRELATED meanings
ex. bright |
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lexical decomposition
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word meaning broken down into semantic features
very limited- how many features? does it work apart from nouns? |
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overlap
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two words have the same value for some (not all) of the semantic features that constitute their meaning
ex. sister, aunt, mother, niece |
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reference
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what objects are referred to by linguistic expressions (words, phrases, sentences)
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truth conditions
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the study of the conditions under which a statement can be judged true or false
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speaker-sense
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what the speaker actually means > Pragmatics
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linguistic-sense
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deals only with the literal meaning of a sentence
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referent
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entity identified by the referring expression. the actual object picked out.
ex. referring expression - that bird referent - the bird i am pointing to |
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extension
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refers to the set of all potential referents for a referring expression. all entities in the world that can be picked out.
ex. referring expression - bird extension - all birds |
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intension
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corresponds to the inherent sense of a referring expression - the concept that it evokes. general concept, not real world objects
ex. phrase - MLB champs extension - red sox, yankees, etc intension - the winner of the world series |
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prototype
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a typical member of the extension of a referring expression
ex. dog - labrador, not poodle |
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stereotype
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a list of characteristics describing a prototype
ex. a cat has four legs, a tail, fur, whiskers, chases mice |
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coreference
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two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real world entity. not synonymous, but same referent.
ex. Barack Obama, the president of the US |
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anaphora
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a linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression
ex. himself, whoever often with coreference |
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deixis
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expression with one meaning that can refer to different entities depending on the speaker and his or her special and temporal orientation.
ex. you / I ; left / right ; here / there |
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analytic sentence
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necessarily true by virtue of the words used.
ex. a bachelor is an unmarried man |
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contradictory sentence
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opposite of an analytic sentence.
ex. a bachelor is a married man |
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synthetic sentence
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may be true or false, depending on how the world is.
ex. Charles is married |
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entailment
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proposition that follows NECESSARILY from another sentence. a entails b.
test: the truth of a ensures the truth of b AND the falsity of b ensures the falsity of a. UNIDIRECTIONAL ex. Coco is a dog Coco is an animal |
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paraphrase
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both sentences entail each other
ex. Paul bought a car from Sue Sue sold a car to Paul |
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presupposition
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proposition that must be ASSUMED to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence.
test: consistency under negation. ex. Maria aced / didn't ace chem Maria took chem |
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presupposition triggers
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wh-questions
ex. when did you finish your hw? factive verbs ex. john proved/argued that his formula was better |
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agent
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the entity that performs an action
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theme
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the entity undergoing an action or a movement
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source
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the starting point for a movement
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goal
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the end point for a movement
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location
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the place where an action occurs
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c-command
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NPa c-commands NPb if the first category above NPa contains NPb.
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Principle A
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a reflexive pronoun must have an antecedent that c-commands it in the same minimal IP
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Principle B
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a pronominal must not have an antecedent that c-commands it in the same minimal IP
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overgeneralization
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creating forms children have never heard
ex. writed |
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babbling
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similar across languages
frequently found / p, b, m, t, d, n, k, g, s, h, w, j / |
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developmental order of phonemes
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vowels before consonants. / a, i, u / first
stops come first. front to back of mouth labials>alveolars>velars>interdentals word-initial phonemic contrast first |
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syllable structure acquisition
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CV > CVC > CVCC > CCVCC
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syllable deletion
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deletion of unstressed syllables (hippopotamus > pas)
retention of final unstressed (potato > tato) |
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consonant cluster reduction
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[s]+stop > delete s ex. stop > top
stop+liquid > del liquid ex. try > ty fric+liquid > del liquid ex. from > fum nasal+voiceless stop > del nasal ex. bump > bup |
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final consonant reduction
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ex. dog > do
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stopping
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continuant > stop
ex. sing > ting |
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fronting
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move place forward
ex. ship > sip |
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gliding
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liquid > glide
ex. lion > yion |
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denasalization
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nasal > stop
ex. spoon > bud |
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final devoicing
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voiced > unvoiced
ex. bed > bet |
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assimilation voicing from V to preceding C
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tell > del
pig > big |
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consonant harmony
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doggie > goggie
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overextension
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the meaning of a child's word is more general or inclusive than that of the corresponding adult form
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underextension
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the use of words in an overly restricted fashion
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developmental sequence of morpheme acquisition
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1. -ing
2. plural -s 3. poss -s 4. verb be 5. articles the, a 6. past -ed 7. 3rd person -s 8. aux be |
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one-word stage
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12-18 months
'holophrases' (one word as sentence) most informative word chosen |
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two-word stage
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few months after one-word
mini-sentences difficult to determine syntax word order correct |
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telegraphic stage
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2-2.5 years
longer, more complex structures lacks bound morphemes and non-lexical categories phrase structure emerges |
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inversion (acquisition)
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first intonation
inversion comes after auxes |
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wh-questions (acquisition)
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ages 2-4
inversion possible with aux stage where inversion only with yes-no questions |
