Linguistics Exam Ii

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Old English

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standard English up to about 1100

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Middle English

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standard English from 1100 to around 1500

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Modern English

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standard English from 1500 to the present

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3 Characteristics of Language Change

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~Constancy of Language Change
~Pervasiveness of Language Change
~Systematicness of Language Change

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Relic Form

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a once widespread linguistic form that survives in a limited area but is otherwise obsolete

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Regularity of Phonetic Change

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evidence that pronunciations change in a very general or regular nature

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Indoeuropean

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the predecessor language of English and most of the European languages

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Cognates

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words of different languages descended from a word of a mutual ancestor language

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Grimm's Law

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stop consonants in Indoeuropean changed in a regular pattern that resulted in regular correspondences between phonemes of English and Latin in cognates

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Great Vowel Shift

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Old English non-high vowels moved up in articulation and the highest long vowels became centralized and dipthongized

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Alternations

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different pronunciations of a single morpheme caused by sound changes

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Vowel Reduction

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a phonetic change where vowels in fully unstressed syllables become centralized as a "schwa"

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Fricative Voicing

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fricatives were voiced between voiced phones

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Allophone

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a type of phonetic variant; can be used interchangeably

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Regularization

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irregular forms of less frequent/later-learned morphemes are replaced by regular forms of more frequent and earlier learned morphemes

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Productive Rules

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rules which are extended to new words

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Nonproductive rules

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rules which tend to be curtailed by extension of productive rules

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Rule Extension

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the application of productive rules to cases formerly subject to nonproductive rules

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Leveling

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the loss of irregular cases as the result of extending productive rules to cover the cases

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Suppletive

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alternations found in particular morphemes where one is considered the general case and the other replaces the general case under stated conditions

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SVO

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subject-verb-object order

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Do-insertion

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in Modern English, the addition of a form of the verb "do" when there is no auxiliary verb but one is needed

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8 Causes of Language Change

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~Ease of articulation
~Expression of new meanings
~Desire for novelty
~Regularization or rule extension
~Redundancy reduction
~Metanalysis
~Obsolescence of meanings
~Language Contact

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Ease of Articulation

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reason for the two most common phonological changes: deletion and assimilation (makes pronunciations shorter and simpler)

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Deletion

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whole phonemes are lost in some or all environments

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Assimilation

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neighboring phonemes become like or more like one another

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Diachronic

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historical phonological change

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Synchronic

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present-day grammar rule

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Regressive Assimilation

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assimilation to the sound that follows it

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Palatalization

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consonants get (alveo-) palatal articulation by assimilation to following high front vowels

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Dissimilation

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neighboring phones become less like one another (uncommon)

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Metathesis

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adjacent phones are inverted

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Chain-Shift

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systematic far-reaching sound changes (e.g. the English Great Vowel Shift)

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Jargon

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the specialized vocabulary of professionals

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Argot

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to keep others from understanding

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Euphemism

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intent to make objectionable meanings less objectionable

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In-group markers

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enables members of the occupational group to announce themselves as such

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Slang

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the specialized vocabulary of social groups, especially young social groups

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One form/one meaning Principle

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one form should have one meaning and one meaning one form

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Redundancy Reduction

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eliminates violations of the one form/one meaning principle by elim

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Bifurcation

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the single meaning of two forms is split into two meanings each with its form

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Metanalysis

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analysis of a word, phrase, or sentence in a new way, and then using the part of that analysis

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Internal Causes

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when the of language change are forces from within the language

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Substratum Language

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the earlier present language

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Superstratum Language

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the later arriving language

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Diglossia

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mutual unintelligibility between the casual or vernacular variety and the formal or standard variety of a single language

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Languages

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mutually non-intelligible varieties

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Language Families

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consists of the languages descended from an earlier language

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Isolates

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languages not yet shown to be part of the larger groups

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Sibling Languages

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the member languages of a language family

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Protolanguage or Parent Language

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the language from which sibling languages descend

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Monogenesis

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language was invented/developed only once in human history; all languages descend from the one original languages

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Polygenesis

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languages derive from multiple origins (more accepted hypothesis)

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(Genetic) Language Classification

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the process of determining the grouping of languages on the basis of their shared descent from a parent language

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Mass Comparison

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comparison of vocabulary between languages suspected to be related by common descent

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Language Reconstruction

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forms of a protolanguage are hypothesized by undoing the sound changes by which cognates are related

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Comparative Method

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identify regular phonetic similarities between the phones of cognates and hypothesizes the original phone from which they evolve

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Reconstructed Protolanguage

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written with an asterisk to show that they are hypothetical and known only by reconstruction

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Internal Reconstruction

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reconstructs only earlier forms of a single language, by making comparisons within that language

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Pidgin Language

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a language that is caused by two languages coming together to create a third

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Lingua Franca

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language of choice of those who do not share a native language