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191 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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List the organization of the body
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cell, tissue, functional unit, organ, organ system
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Name the 5 functional characteristics of all cells
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1.transport/biological work, 2.chemical work,
3.Store DNA, 4.detection/response to chemical messengers, 5. Reproduction |
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Which cells undergo Meiosis? what is the outcome?
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gamete; the chromosome number is halved
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Which cells undergo Mitosis? what is the outcome?
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somatic cells, a daughter cell is produced
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What are the three states/types of mitotic reproduction?
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fixed-post mitotic state, mitosis when injured, constantly proliferate
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What are the 4 basic cell types
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Epithelial cells, Muscle cells, Neurons, and Connective Tissue cells
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What 2 things can epithelial cells make?
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glands, continuous layers of cells that line surfaces of organs
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What are the 3 functions of Epithelial cells?
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1. selective permeability barrier 2. secretes: chemical messengers, muscus, water 3. protects from chemical/mechanical damage and dehydration
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Name an organ that uses epithelial cells as glands and cells that line surfaces of organs
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Pancreas
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Reproduction of Epithelial cells?
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Some continuously proliferate while some only get miotic activity when energy is present
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What are the three types of muscle cells?
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skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
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What is special about muscle cells?
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They do mechanical work, specialized for contraction
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Exocrine gland
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secrete their substances, not hormones, through ducts onto the surface, affecting only the tissues in which they are produced
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Exocrine gland
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produces hormones that are secreted into the blood stream and travel to the place where they exert their effect
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What kind of membranes do muscle cells have?
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excitable
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What are the 2 mechanisms of exciation of a muscle cell?
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1. presence of voltage activated channels
2.High concentration of axons w/ myosin: contraction proteins |
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What are the 3 types of muscle cells?
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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What is the reproduction of skeletal muscles
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fixed post mitotic, hypertrophy
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What is the reproduction of cardiac muscles
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fixed post mitotic, hypetrophy
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What is the reproduction of smooth muscles?
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proliferate through hypetrophy and hyperplasia
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hypertrophy
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to grow in size
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hyperplasia
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to increase in number
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Where do u find smooth muscle cells? What is their function?
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line hollow tubes and organs, propells contents
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What special areas do cardiac muscle cells have?
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special pace making areas
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What is the function of cardiac muscle cells?
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to pump blood
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What is the function of skeletal muscle cells?
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to move the skeleton
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4 structural characteristics of neurons
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1. dendrites 2. axon 3. nerve cell soma 4. excitable membrane for intiation and conduction of action potential/voltage regulated channels
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3 functions of neurons
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innerverate other neurons, local transmitter connection, synthesize/secrete neurotransmitters
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What is the replication of neurons in the CNS?
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fixed post mitotic
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What is the replication of neurons in the peripheral?
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miotic activity when injured, can get some axon regeneration/repairing part of a cell
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What forms the medium between all tissue?
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connective tissue cells
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5 functions of connective tissue?
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provide structural support, trophic & morphogenic rate for repairng tissues, development of roles (signals), defense against foreign material, medium for exchange of nutrients
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how many type of connective tissues cells are there? what are the types?
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General, and Skeletal
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how many type of connective tissues cells are there? what are the types?
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General, and Skeletal
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how many type of connective tissues cells are there? what are the types?
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General, and Skeletal
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Where are the special skeletal connective tissue cells found?
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in cartlidge and bone, embeded in the matrix which they secrete
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Name 3 examples of special skeletal connective tissue cells
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chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes
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What are the two types of General Connective tissue
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resident and transient
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What are resident cells? give 4 examples
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stay in the tissue; fibroblasts, adipocytes, mast cells, pericytes
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What are transient cells?
Give an example |
cells that originate in the bone marrow, blood cells
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What is tissue?
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an aggregation of cells surrounded by the extracellular matrix
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Name four things found in the ECM-examples
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fibroblast, smooth muscle, schwann cell
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what is the most importabt feature of fibroblast?
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they continously proliferated, great for repair
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What do schwan cells do?
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that make myelin, a fatty tissue that insulates and protects the nerves
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What 2 things make up the ECM?
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Insoluble protein fibrils & soluble polymers
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Name and describe the 2 types of structural proteins that make of the insoluble protein fibrils
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collagen- 30% of bodies proteins, found everywhere
elastin-has the ability to stretch, loses elasticity as it gets calcified w/ aging |
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What are soluble polymers?
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long carbohydrate chains linked to proteins
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Name 3 soluble polymers
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glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, cell adhesive glycoproteins
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What do cell adhesive glycoproteins do?
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communicate between inside and outside of the cell
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What do glycosaminoglycan and proteoglycans do?
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they absorb a lot of water
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What are the 3 functions of the ECM
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they provide a mechanical framework, they provide a medium through which chemical/nutrients can freely diffuse, fluid pressure
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What 2 kinds of fluid pressure does the ECM provide
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interstitial free fluid pressure, and intersitiual fluid colloid osmotic pressure-exerted by the ionic mileui
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What is the basement membrane?
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the stuctural organization of proteins collagen and ground substance observed between connective tissue and cells
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What are the layers of the basement membrane?
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basla lamina & lamina Reticularis
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Wha ate the 2 lamina of the basal lamina
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extracellular glycoproteins and transmembrane glycoprotiens; and layer made of a meshwork of collagen IV
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Where are the special skeletal connective tissue cells found?
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in cartlidge and bone, embeded in the matrix which they secrete
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Name 3 examples of special skeletal connective tissue cells
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chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes
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What are the two types of General Connective tissue
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resident and transient
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What are resident cells? give 4 examples
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stay in the tissue; fibroblasts, adipocytes, mast cells, pericytes
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What are transient cells?
Give an example |
cells that originate in the bone marrow, blood cells
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What is tissue?
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an aggregation of cells surrounded by the extracellular matrix
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Name four things found in the ECM-examples
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fibroblast, smooth muscle, schwann cell
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what is the most importabt feature of fibroblast?
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they continously proliferated, great for repair
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What do schwan cells do?
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that make myelin, a fatty tissue that insulates and protects the nerves
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What 2 things make up the ECM?
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Insoluble protein fibrils & soluble polymers
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Where are the special skeletal connective tissue cells found?
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in cartlidge and bone, embeded in the matrix which they secrete
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Name 3 examples of special skeletal connective tissue cells
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chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes
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What are the two types of General Connective tissue
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resident and transient
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What are resident cells? give 4 examples
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stay in the tissue; fibroblasts, adipocytes, mast cells, pericytes
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What are transient cells?
Give an example |
cells that originate in the bone marrow, blood cells
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What is tissue?
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an aggregation of cells surrounded by the extracellular matrix
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Name four things found in the ECM-examples
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fibroblast, smooth muscle, schwann cell
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what is the most importabt feature of fibroblast?
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they continously proliferated, great for repair
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What do schwan cells do?
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that make myelin, a fatty tissue that insulates and protects the nerves
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What 2 things make up the ECM?
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Insoluble protein fibrils & soluble polymers
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What makes up the insoluble proteins einsfibrils of the ECM?
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structural proteins
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Name and describe the 2 structural proteins of the insoluble protein fibrils of the ECM
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o Collagens (30% of body’s proteins, found everywhere)
Elastin-Has the ability to stretch, Loose elasticity as it gets calcified w/ aging |
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What are the soluble polymers that make up the ECM?
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• Long carbohydrate chains linked to proteins
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Name and describe 3 examples of solube polymers that make up the ECM
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Glycosaminoglycans & Proteoglycans: absorb a lot of water
Cell adhesive glycoproteins: communication between inside and outsie of cell |
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Name 3 functions of the ECM
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1.Provide a mechanical framework
2. Medium through which chemical messengers/nutrients can freely diffuse 3.Fluid Pressure • Interstitial fluid pressure: exerted by the ionic milieu • Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure: w/ in the ECM influences net flux of fluid |
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How does the ECM provide a mechanical framewurk
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• Distributes stresses of movement/gravity while maintaining integrity of tissues
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What are the 2 types of fluid pressure of the ECM?
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1. Interstitial fluid pressure
2. presure exerted by the ionic milieu, Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure, w/ in the ECM influences net flux of fluid |
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What is the basement membrane?
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Structural organization of proteins, collagen and ground substance observed between connective tissue and cells
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What are the 2 layers of the basement membrane
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basal lamina and lamina reticularis
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What are the 2 lamina of the basal lamina?
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1.Layer of extracellular glycoproteins and transmembrane glycoproteins
2. Layer meade up a meshwork of collagen IV |
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What 2 things make up the Lamina Reticularis?
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1.Large fibrils:
2.Ground substance: |
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What make up the large fibrils of the lamina reticularis?
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Collagen types I, III, and VII
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What makes up the ground substance of the lamina reticularis?
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hydrate milieu made of soluble polymers
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Name 3 functions of the Basement membrane
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1. Anchor/hold substance that come close to the cell
2. Communication between inside and outside of cell 3.Aids in repair of tissues |
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What is the Glycocalyx?
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Cell coat consisting of glycopriteins & glycolipids that form an integral par of the plasma membrane
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Where is the glycocalyx locates?
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in the innermost outer part of the cell, the intermost layer of the basal lamina
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Name 4 functional varities of the glycolcalyx
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1.Cell antigens:
2. Negatively charged carbohydrate moieties impart charge barrier 3. Specialized adhesion molecules 4. Specialized membrane junctions |
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give 2 examples of cell antigens that are varities of the glycolcalyx
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MHC antigens, blood antigens on RBC
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Name 3 specialized membrane junctions that are varities of the glycolcalyx
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1. Tight junctions
2. Gap junctions 3. Desposomes |
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Approximately what % of body weight is water?
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60%
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Where is the glycocalyx locates?
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in the innermost outer part of the cell, the intermost layer of the basal lamina
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Name 4 functional varities of the glycolcalyx
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1.Cell antigens:
2. Negatively charged carbohydrate moieties impart charge barrier 3. Specialized adhesion molecules 4. Specialized membrane junctions |
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give 2 examples of cell antigens that are varities of the glycolcalyx
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MHC antigens, blood antigens on RBC
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Name 3 specialized membrane junctions that are varities of the glycolcalyx
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1. Tight junctions
2. Gap junctions 3. Desposomes |
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Approximately what % of body weight is water?
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60%
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Approximately how many liters is total body water?
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42 L
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How many liters is intracellular fluid?
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28 L
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How many litters is extracellular fluid? How is it divided up?
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14; plasma= 3L, interstitial fluid=11L
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What does the total body sodium content determine
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The total body water
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What regulates water/sodium balance?
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a number of hormones and messengers
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Are intra and extracellular fluid more similar or different in composition?
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very different in composition?
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What is th goal of the organ system
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To maintai the internal environment of the body
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ive examples of some properties of the internal environment that are regulated
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1.PH
2. Temperature 3.Electrolytes: effect neuronal signaling and muscles 4.Blood glucose: main fuel brain can use for metabolism |
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What are the responsibilities of cells?
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To perfom that basic functions of all cells
To perom the specialized function unique to that cell |
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Homeostasis?
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A dynamic constancy of bodily function
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Steady State:
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regulation of a particular variable around a set point, that still requires energy
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Set point:
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precise point that can be varied (hormones, body temp, ect.)
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Negative Feedback
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increase in substance=turn on mechanism to decrease that substance
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Positive Feedback
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increase in substance= turn on mechanism to increase that substance
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What are the 3 components of a homeostatic reflex arc?
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1.Sensory detector, 2.integrating center, 3.effectors
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what do electrolytes effect?
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neuronal signals and functioning
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what is the main fuel the blood can use for metabolism?
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blood glucose
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Pathway for Homeostatic Reflex Arc
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• Detect change→(afferent pathway)→send detection to integrating center→ (efferent pathway)→ determines output and sends to effectors
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What are 4 biological rhythms that can affect homeostasis?
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1.Circadian rhythm (24 hr light/dark cycle)
2.Puberty 3.Menopause 4.Age |
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What are the 4 types of Local chemical messengers?
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paracrine, atuocrines,cytokines, eicosanoids
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Name 3 long loop reflexes
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1. endocrine hormones
2. neurotransmitters 3. neuroendocrine hormone |
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What is a neuroendocrine hormone?
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it is released from the neuron by travel from circulation
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Paracrine messenger?
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secretted by one cell to affect another cell
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autocrine messenger
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secreted by a cell to effect itself
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cytokines
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both auto and paracrine
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eicosanoids
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modified fatty acid derived from arachidonic acid
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What is the site @ which all stimuli act to form eicosanoids?
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Phosphlipase A2
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Describe the cyclooxygenase pathway of producing Eicosanoids
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1. messenger binds to receptor, activating phospholipase A2
2. Membranse phospholipid gives off arachidonic acid 3. Enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX 1 & 2) leads to: 1.prostaglandis and thromboxanes 2. Cox remains in the cells 3. Cox can be blocked by NSAIDS like asprin or drugs that caused cardiovascular risk |
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What are prostaglandis and thromboxanes an important mediator for
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iflamation
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Describe the lipoxygenase pathway of producing Eicosanoids
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1. messenger binds to receptor, activating phospholipase A2
2. Membranse phospholipid gives off arachidonic acid 3. Enzyme lipoxygenase creates leukotrienes |
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receptors
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specific target cell proteins
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specificity
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ability of a receptor to bind to a limited # of structurally related messengers
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saturation
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the degree to which receptors are occupied to messenger. All occupied= fully saturated
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affinity
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strength to which a chemical messenger binds to its receptor
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competition
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different molecules w/ similar structures competing w/ each other to combine w/ the same receptor
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antagonist
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competes w/ a chemical messenger normally in the body. Binds to receptr but doesn't trigger cell's response
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Down-regulation
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decrease in # of target-cell receptors for a given messenger; b/c of chronic high concentration of messenger
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Pathway for Homeostatic Reflex Arc
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• Detect change→(afferent pathway)→send detection to integrating center→ (efferent pathway)→ determines output and sends to effectors
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What are 4 biological rhythms that can affect homeostasis?
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1.Circadian rhythm (24 hr light/dark cycle)
2.Puberty 3.Menopause 4.Age |
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What are the 4 types of Local chemical messengers?
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paracrine, atuocrines,cytokines, eicosanoids
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Name 3 long loop reflexes
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1. endocrine hormones
2. neurotransmitters 3. neuroendocrine hormone |
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What is a neuroendocrine hormone?
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it is released from the neuron by travel from circulation
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Supersensivity
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increased sensitivity of a taret cell to a messenger, often caused by upregulation
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Mechanism of action of lipid-soluble messengers
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1. Unbound lipid soluble messenger diffuses from plasma across the cells plasma membrane and nuclear membrane
2. Cell enter nucleus and binds to the receptor there, activating the receptors as a transcription factor 3. Hormone-receptor complex binds to a sequence on DNA near the response element gene 4. Genes rate of transcription into mRNA is 5. mRNA leaves nucleus to the ribosome to direct synthesize of a specific protein 6. The increase in the amount of this protein alters some functional response |
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Pathway for Homeostatic Reflex Arc
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• Detect change→(afferent pathway)→send detection to integrating center→ (efferent pathway)→ determines output and sends to effectors
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What are 4 biological rhythms that can affect homeostasis?
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1.Circadian rhythm (24 hr light/dark cycle)
2.Puberty 3.Menopause 4.Age |
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What are the 4 types of Local chemical messengers?
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paracrine, atuocrines,cytokines, eicosanoids
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Name 3 long loop reflexes
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1. endocrine hormones
2. neurotransmitters 3. neuroendocrine hormone |
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What is a neuroendocrine hormone?
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it is released from the neuron by travel from circulation
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What are the 4 types of lipid insoluble messengers?
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receptor complex includes ion channel, receptors interact w/ G proteins, receptors interact w/ cytoplasmic JAK kinsases, Receptors function as enzymes
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Signal transdunction mechanism involving G
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1. Messenger activates receptor
2. G-protein couples 3. Various plasma membrane effector proteins (ions/channels/enzymes) activated |
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Signal transduction mechanism-receptor activates a JAK kinase in the cytoplasm
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1. Messenger binds to receptor, which activates JAK kinase
2. JAK kinase phosphorylates target proteins, many are transcription factors, which synthesize new proteins |
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Signal transduction mechanism in which receptor functions as enzyme
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1. Usually functions as a tyrosine kinase (phosphorylating tyrosine enzymes)
2. Binding activates enzymatic portion 3. Receptor phosporylates one of its own tyrosine groups 4. New phosphotyrosines serves a docking sites for cytoplasmic proteins, which bind to other protines, causing signaling pathways |
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Signal transduction mechanism in which receptor complex includes an ion channel
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1. Messenger activates receptor to open channel
2. Increase in net diffusion across the plasma membrane, change in membrane potential, increase of cytosolic calcium concentration |
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What do all insoluble messengers have in common?
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they don't have to get in the cell b/c the secondary messenger activated the phosphate protein kinase
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What is biological work?
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When body transfers energy from substrate to ATP
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Describe the anerobic metabolism
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1. Fuel to ATP that doesn’t require oxygen
2. Carbohydrates only 3. Very fast and doesn’t last long |
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describe the aeroic metabolism
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1. metabolism of fuel substrate to ATP that requires oxygen
2. Carbohydrates, lipids 3. Efficient and long lasting |
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What are the 2 ways the body can transfer energy to ATP
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anerobic and aerobic
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What is the currecny for energy in the body?
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ATP
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What is cellular respiration? Formula?
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reverse of photosynthesis; Glucose + 6 O2→ 6 CO2 +6 H2O + ATP
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What are the 3 types of biological work and waht do they all have in common?
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mechanical, chemical, and transport
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Mechanical work?
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ATP for movement
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Transport work?
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ATP is required to move things across the conecntration gradient
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Chemical work: 3 synthesis using ATP
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1. Glucose→(ATP) Glycogen
2. Glycerol + Fatty Acids→ (ATP) Triglycerol 3. Amino acids→ (ATP) Protein |
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Catabolism
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taking any of the stored fues,breaking them down to release the single glucose, fatty acid, or amino acid
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Anabolism
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build up; to store, maintain or increase
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Key hormones for anabolic
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*Insulin*
growth hormone, thyroid hormone (protein synthesis) |
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Key hormones for catabolic
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glucogyne, cortisol, epinephorine, norepinephorine
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Minerals for catabolsim?
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Magnesium, Manganese, Colbalt, Potassium, Copper, Zinc, Sulfur, Iron, Calcium
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Minerals fo anabolism
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magnesium, potassium, calcium, cholorine, manganese
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3 methods of anabolism
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1. Glucose→ Glycogen
2. Fatty Acids→ Fats 3. Amino Acids→ Proteins |
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What are the 2 fxns of carbohydrates?
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1. fuel
2. attaches to proteins/membranes, modifying binding signals |
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Where do you find carbs?
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3g Plasma glucose
100g Liver Glycogen 400g Muscle glycogen 503 g total→ last about 1 day |
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What does the brain depend on for fuel?
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plasma glucose, not amino acids
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What are 6 functions of fat
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1.Protects organs/isulation
2. Fuel-biggest source of long term energy 3.Vitamins-fat soluble Phospholipids/cholesterols: 4.Precursors for messengers(Phospholipids/cholesterols) 5. Make up membrane (Phospholipids/cholesterols) 6.Precursors for hormones |
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What happens when fats aren't taken in? describe the decline
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Slow, progressive decline
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5 functions of proteins
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1.Channels, receptors, transporters
2.Structural molecules 3.Enzymes 4.Fuel 5.Make up skeletal |
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Describe protein levels when not taken in
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progressive decline, then undergo a sharp turn towards rapid depletion (near death)
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What is the Max VO2
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Maximal amount of oxygen that can be consumed despite increases in exercise intensity, max the body can work
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How long can a human stay @ max VO2
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1-2 minutes
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What is oxygen uptake
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amount of oxygen body consumes while converting energy
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What are the 2 major determinants of VO2 max? others
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age (peak in late teens), gender;
Cardiovascular system, Heart rate (decreases w/ age),Lifestyle choices(smoking),Level of intensive training |
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What happens when VO2 max reaches resting oxygen consumption
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you die
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Lean body mass
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essential fat + body water + muscle +bone
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fat free mass
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body mass devoid of extractable fat
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Essential fat
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fat found in organs that’s necessary for normal function
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Can rate of devline of peak physiological activity be controlled?
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yes, by activity
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When do you reach peak physiological functions, need to have maximized muscle mass/total bone?
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late 20’s early 30’s
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Describe a reference male
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Age 20-24, 68.5 inches/174 cm
Lean body mass: 61.7 kg Essential Fat:2.1 kg |
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Describe a reference female
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Age 20.24,64.5 in
Lean body mass: 48.2 kg Essential fat: 6.8 kg |
