Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Tissue preparation:
1. Fixation 2. Embedding for Sectioning 3. Microtomy (Cutting Sections) 4. Staining |
1. Buffered neutral formalin - light microscopy
Glutaraldehyde, Osmium O4- EM 2. Paraffin - LM Epoxy resins - EM 3. Steel knife: 5 micrometer sections - LM Diamond knife: 50-150 nm - EM 4. Dyes - LM Heavy metals (Os, Pb, U) EM |
|
|
H&E Stains
1. Eosin 2. Hematoxylin |
1. Acidic dye
Carries net negative charge (Na+ dye-) Acidic dye + cationic group -> acidiophilia Stains: cytoplasmic filaments; intracellular membranes and proteins; extracellular fibers 2. Acts like basic dye (Dye+cl-) Stains: -PO4 groups of nucleic acids -SO4 of GAGs -COOH of proteins --> basophilia Basophilia associated with heterochromatin and nucleoli; ribosomes and rER; and matrix of cartilage |
|
|
Pros and Cons of H&E stains
(formalin fixation) |
1. Preserved by formalin fixation:
Nucleic acids Proteins Phospholipids 2. Lost in formalin fixation: small proteins small nucleic acids (like tRNA) Neutral lipids Glycogen Proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans |
|
|
PAS stain
|
Periodic Acid - Schiff
Sugars Carbohydrates Glycoproteins Reticular Fibers -basement membranes Similar to Feulgen Stain |
|
|
Frozen Sections
|
Tissues frozen with compressed CO2 or isopentane
Sections cut with cryostat with frozen knife Stained with H&E, methylene blue or PAS Remainder of tissue processed conventional |
|
|
Other visualization methods
(3) |
1. Enzyme digestion
2. Enzyme Histochemistry 3. Immunocytochemistry |
|
|
Autoradiography: Light and EM
|
Supply radioactive precursor --> pulse
Wash out unincorporated isotope --> chase Apply and develop photographic emulsion |
|
|
FISH
|
not sure about this one
|
|
|
Special considerations:
Light microscope 1. Resolving Power: 2. Retina equals... 3. Light microscope @ 540 nm... 4. Math of d 5. Ocular is what, does what 6. what is the light microscope's magnification range, and what is it used to look at |
1. Distance that two objects must be separated to perceived as separate
2. .2 mm (the resolution?) 3. .2 micrometers 4. d = lambda / NA(object) + NA(condenser) 5. the eyepiece, increases magnification but not resolution 6. 40x to 1000x, groups of cells and their relationships |
|
|
Special Considerations:
TEM 1. What does it use for images? 2. compare wavelength of e- to wavelength of photon 3. What is the resolution? 4. harder or easier to reduce artifacts? 5. Images are contrast rich; either electron dense or electron lucent; heavy metals increase the... 6. Magnification, what used to look at? |
1. electrons instead of photons
2. about 1/2,000th 3. around .1 to .05 nm 4. harder 5. contrast 6. 1500x to 500,000x used to look inside a single cell, or that cell's relations to its surroundings |
|
|
Amphipathic molecule
|
A molecule that is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
|
|
|
Phospholipids have two forms when placed in water
|
1. Micelle - a circle of lollipops with the sucker part pointing to the outside and the hydrophobic tails pointing to the interior of the circle.
2. Phospholipid bilayer - Long sheets of phospholipid molecules arranged so that the head groups project both outward and inward. |
|
|
Fluidity of membrane
1. degree of saturation 2. cholesterol |
1. controlled by the amount of double bonds
2. The more cholesterol, the more rigid the membrane becomes. |
|
|
Membrane asymmetry
1. Outer membrane composition 2. Inner membrane composition Asymmetry is reflected by what in outer leaflet How some membranes differ from cell to cell |
1. Phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin
2. phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine PEPSi p-ethanolamine p-serine i - inner leaflet Glycosylation of proteins and phospholipids of the outer leaflet but not the inner leaflet Different membranes have different ratios of lipid to protein, which reflects the function of a particular membrane. |
|
|
Asymmetric distribution of membrane charge...
|
Sugar residues are added to proteins and lipids during synthesis of proteins and lipids in the ER and Golgi Apparatus
Some sugars carry electrical charge, causing asymmetric distribution of membrane charge p-serine carries a net negative charge of -1. Other phospholipids are neutral. BUT, much more negative charge on the outer surface due to charges conveyed by the charged sugars |
|
|
Two types of membrane proteins
1. Integral 2. Peripheral 3. Integral protein removal 4. Peripheral protein removal 5. Two types of integral proteins |
1. Span the entire membrane
2. Are only on the surface of the membrane 3. Detergent 4. Increase the salt concentration 5. Single pass proteins - pass through the membrane once Multipass proteins - pass through membrane several times |
|
|
Pinocytosis
|
AKA cell drinking
The cell produces small vesicles beneath the plasma membrane. These vesicles internalize extracellular fluid containing proteins and other dissolved solutes |
|
|
Endocytosis
1. describe 2. what is the most common coat protein? 3. What do you call the forming vesicle under the influence of clathrin? |
1.AKA phagocytosis (cell eating)
brings extracellular debris and bacteria into cell. Requires a protein coat to invaginate. 2. Clathrin 3. Coated vesicle or coated pit |
|
|
Exocytosis
|
Process by which the cell extrudes something to the extracellular space
|
|
|
Endosomes
1. what are they 2. what kinds are there |
1. vesicles deep to the plasma membrane, collectively constitute the endosomal compartment.
2. Early endosomes - found closer to the cell membrane Late endosomes - located deeper in the cell. More acidic than early endosomes. |
|
|
Primary function of mitochondria
Another function recently found |
1. producing high energy ATP from ADP.
2. Apoptosis - programmed cell death |
|
|
Basal enfoldings
|
Look like fingers of plasma membrane with linear arrangements of mitochondria in between the fingers. The plasma membrane bounding these basal enfoldings are rich in Na+/K+ ATPases
|
|
|
Three major proteins inserted into inner mitochondrial membrane are:
|
1. Proteins of the ETC
2. an ADP/ATP translocase 3. an ATP synthetase |
|
|
How mitochondria make ATP
|
Acetyl CoA and Oxaloacetate -> citrate
Mitochondria oxidize citrate, creates electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ETC captures energy from oxidizing citrate and pumps protons into intermembrane space. Protons stored in the intermembrane space can now be used to drive the ATP synthetase complex, creating ATP |
|
|
Ribosome Structure
1. what instrument must be used to see them 2. how big are they 3. consist of two subunits 4. what must be present for assembly |
1. electron microscope
2. 20 to 30 nanometers 3. 40s and 60s 4. mRNA |
|
|
Ribosome function
|
carry out translation from mRNA to protein.
Sometimes more than one can attach to an mRNA - polysome |
|
|
If proteins are to stay inside cell, they are made from...
If proteins are to go outside the cell or are to be embedded in the cell membrane, they are to be made by... |
1. free ribosomes (polysomes)
2. ribosomes in endoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
The amount of RER is dependent on the cells...
|
production of protein.
the plasma membrane or exocytosed to the outside |
|
|
The RER is very prominent in three areas:
|
1. acinar cells of exocrine pancreas
2. fibroblasts (collagen production) 3. Plasma cells (antibodies or immune globulins) |
|
|
A cell that stains basophilic means the cell is producing...
|
a large amount of protein
|
|
|
Three proteins that are essential for RER function:
|
1. signal recognition particle receptor (aka docking protein)
allows the ribosome - mRNA complex to attach to the ER. 2. Pore proteins Allow newly synthesized protein to enter the cisterna of the RER 3. Signal peptidase Cleaves off the signal sequence from the new protein after it enters the cisterna of the RER |
|
|
Other RER functions: (3)
|
1. initial glycosylation of a protein a form of "post translational modification" of the protein.
2. synthesis of new phospholipids to be used in membrane 3. Assembly of multi chain proteins. |
|
|
SER functions (4)
|
1. Steroid hormone synthesis especially in cells of the adrenal and gonads
2. Detoxification of drugs, especially barbiturates, in liver cells 3. Synthesis of phospholipids (also occurs in RER) 4. in muscle, the SER is called sarcoplasmic reticulum, sequesters Ca2+ ions. |
|
|
Golgi Structure
1. The smooth membrane enclosed sacs are called 2. Where is it found in secretory cells 3. Path of proteins 4. Another name for vesicles that just budded off from trans golgi |
1. Cisternae
2. Between nucleus and apical surface 3. Proteins travel - cis golgi network, exit trans golgi, toward cell membrane 4. Condensing vacuoles |
|
|
Golgi
1. How are proteins directed for tranport to the lysosome? 2. Another name for the pathway of processed product headed for direct secretion |
1. They are slapped with M-6P, and this occurs in the cis golgi
2. The default pathway |
|
|
Lysosomes
1. what kind of digestion (size) 2. Number of enzymes, pH 3. Name for virgin lysosome, name for activated lysosome |
1. "bulk" digestion, in contrast to proteosomes, which carry out specific digestion of ticketed proteins
2. upwards of 40 hydrolytic enzymes, acidic pH optimum 3. Primary lysosome, secondary lysosome aka phagolysosome |
|
|
Lysosome structure
1. size 2. which is bigger, primary or secondary lysosome? 3. What is a lysosome called when it contains material that cannot be digested further 4. When these accumulate, it creates a structure called...which... 5. How do lysosomes maintain acid pH in lumen |
1. between .05 and .5 micrometers (maybe light microscope visible?)
2. Secondary lysosome 3. A residual body 4. Lipofuscin pigment (or aging pigment) 5. proton pumps embedded in the membrane |
|
|
List of degradative enzymes in lysosomes
|
1. acid phosphatase (the signature enzyme of a lysosome)
2. B-glucuronidase 3. Ribonuclease 4. DNAase 5. Proteases (both endo and exo) 6. Aryl-sulfatase 7. Lipases |
|
|
curl
|
Compartment to Uncouple Receptor and Ligand
the ability to separate a receptor from its ligand at acidic pH in a lysosome |
|
|
Proteosomes
|
Are like lysosomes but can only degrade certain proteins
|
|
|
The ticket to enter a proteosome
|
Ubiquitin
|
|
|
Peroxisome
1. aka 2. has enzyme that converts harmful substance to H2O2 3. enzyme that converts H202 to h20 02 |
1. microbodies
2. oxidase 3. catalase |
|
|
The Nucleus
|
you what it eeyuh
|
|
|
Double memrane
1. Outer membrane... 2. Inner membrane |
1. Continuous with rough e.r.
2. sits on nuclear lamina |
|
|
Lamins
1. similar to 2. organizes 3. phosphorylation causes... |
1. vimentin
2. the envelope and chromatin 3. dissolution |
|
|
What goes into a nuclear pore?
What comes out of a nuclear pore? |
1. histones, polymerases, lamins, nucleic acids
2. mRNA, tRNA, ribosome parts |
|
|
Subunits of Pore Complex
|
1. Lumenal
2. Annular 3. Column 4. Ring |
|
|
Structure of a nucleosome, types
|
2 turns of DNA around 8-histone protein subunits. H2a, H2b, H3, H4
|
|
|
Importance of H1 histone protein
|
Bends the nucleosome to form 30 nm filament
|
|
|
Chromatin types:
Heterochromatin Euchromatin |
Condensed, inactive
uncondensed, active transcription |
|
|
Chromosomes: seen only when?
how many pair homologous, how many pair of gender? Barr body? |
1. seen only at mitosis
2. 22 pair homologous, one pair of gender chromosomes 3. a barr body is the number of X chromosomes minus one |
|
|
Nucleolus: structure
1. Pars Amorpha 2. Nucleonema |
1. contains 'nuclear organizer' - DNA which encodes rRNA
tips of 5 chromosomes contribute rRNA appears here first 2. Pars fibrosa - dense threads. packed fibers of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) Primary transcripts of rRNA genes plus associated proteins Pars Granulosa - dense granules. Mature ribosomal subunits ready for export to cytoplasm |
|
|
Nucleoplasm
|
Like the cytoplasm of the nucleus.
Includes: enzymatic and nonenymatic proteins, ions and water. also includes nuclear matrix, nucleoskeleton, and lamina |
|
|
Blocking electrons is referred to as...
Passing electrons is referred to as... view images on |
electron dense
electron lucent phosphor coated screen |
|
|
What do you stain with in EM?
|
Uranyl acetate and lead citrate
|
|
|
What structures are typically electron dense?
|
Membranes, ribosomes, heterochromatin
|
|
|
Heterochromatin: electron dense or electron lucent?
Euchromatin: " " |
Heterochromatin: electron dense. Heterochromatin is a CONDENSED form of DNA
Euchromatin: Electron lucent |
|
|
Sometimes dark structures appear in the mitochondrial matrix. What are these?
|
Calcium Phosphate crystals
|
|
|
Parenchyma
Stroma |
The functional cells in a tissue
The connective tissue that supports parenchyma |
|
|
Mucous membrane
Serous membrane |
lines organs that are exposed to outside
external cover of internal organs |
|
|
Nomenclature of epithelial tissue:
|
named for most superficial live layer
|
|
|
Simple Squamous:
1. endothelium 2. mesothelium |
1. lines blood vessels, lymphatics
2. lines visceral and perietal serosa |
|
|
Functions of simple squamous epithelium
|
1. limiting membrane
2. fluid transport 3. gas exchange 4. lubrication 5. friction reduction |
|
|
Simple cuboidal epithelium
1. locations 2. functions |
1. gland ducts
ovary cover kidney tubes 2. secretion absorption protection |
|
|
Simple Columnar
1. locations 2. functions |
1. digestive system
respiratory system reproductive system 2. absorption transportation secretion protection |
|
|
Pseudostratified (simple)
1. locations 2. functions |
1. respiratory - big time
reproductive - epididymus, urethra 2. protection transportation secretion absorption lubrication |
|
|
stratified squamous - keratinized
1. locations 2. functions |
1. skin
2. protection |
|
|
stratified squamous - nonkeratinized
1. locations 2. functions |
1. oral cavity
reproductive 2. protection secretion |
|
|
Stratified cuboidal
1. location 2. functions |
1. sweat gland ducts
2. absorption secretion |
|
|
Transitional epithelium (stratified)
1. locations 2. functions |
1. urinary
facet cells - domed shaped 2. protection digestion |
|
|
Basal lamina
1. definition 2. composition 3. functions |
1. fibrous structure between epithelium and underlying connective tissue
2. Perlecan Entactin Type IV collagen 3. structural support molecular sieve induce cellular polarity regulates growth and proliferation directed cellular migration |
|
|
Membrane domains (3)
|
Apical
Lateral Basal |
|
|
cell surface modifications (3)
|
1. microvilli
2. cilia 3. basal enfoldings |
|
|
Cilium
think... |
DYNEIN
|
|
|
Glands
1. mucous glands 2. serous glands 3. mixed glands |
1. secrete mucous
squashed nucleus at base 2. secrete watery glycoproteins 3. secrete both have serous demilunes or crescents |
|
|
Glands: histology
1. acinus 2. Lobule 3. Lobe 4. main duct |
1. secretory unit
2. intercalated duct interlobular duct intralobular duct lobular duct 3. many lubules intralobar duct 4. the main duct |
|
|
Glands: mode of secretion
1. Holocrine 2. Merocrine 3. Apocrine |
1. Whole cell goes
2. Exocytosis of granules 3. Apical portion goes |
|
|
Glands: distance of distribution
1. Autocrine 2. Paracrine 3. Endocrine |
1. Acts on cell that secreted it
2. Acts on cells in the 'hood' secretion called cytokines, chemokines, or cell specific xyzkines 3. Endocrine act on cells at a great distance secretions called hormones |
|
|
Goblet cell
1. unicellular or multicellular? 2. what does it secrete, and what is the purpose of that? |
1. unicellular
2. mucin, to lubricate and protect |
|
|
Myoepithelial cell
|
contractile
extrudes secretions inside basal lamina |
|
|
DNES cell
|
Aliases and residences
hollow core vesicles two types: open and closed |
|
|
This zone separates the apical region from lateral region
|
zonula Occludens
|
|
|
this zone protects from shearing forces
|
zonula adherans
|
|
|
zonula macula
|
desmosomes
|
|
|
CNS:
organs, where gray and white matter are |
1. cerebrum and cerebellum -
gray matter is superficial, white matter is deep to gray. Spinal cord - gray matter in butterfly shape, deep to white |
|
|
PNS:
organs, where gray and white matter are |
mostly myelinated axons but neuronal cell bodies are found in ganglia
|
|
|
Dendrites
1. highly branching? 2. become thinner or thicker with branching? 3. Is golgi found in dendrites? why? functions: |
1. yes
2. thinner 3. No. why? not sure. functions: adaptation, learning, memory |
|
|
Soma aka Perikaryon
|
cell body
contains many dendrites, one axon axon arises at axon hillock |
|
|
Axons
1. branched axons are called 2. initial segment is which myelinated region? 3. synaptic input summated in... 4. rough ER? golgi? |
1. collateral axons
2. first myelinated region 3. initial segment 4. NO |
|
|
Axonal transport:
Anterograde 1. what is the motor protein 2. slow: 3. med: 4. fast: |
1. Kinesin
2. cytoskeletal proteins 3. mitochondria 4. vesicles filled with neurotransmitters |
|
|
Axonal transport:
Retrograde 1. so-so speed |
1. returns membrane (viruses and toxins)
|
|
|
Terminal arborization: accomplished with...
|
synaptic structures
|
|
|
intracellular Na+ is what fraction of extracellular Na+?
|
1/10
|
|
|
At rest, which ion is pumped out?
|
Na+, with Na+/K+ ATPase
|
|
|
what is the resting membrane potential of an axon?
|
-70 millivolts
|
|
|
The synapse parts
|
pre-synaptic membrane
synaptic cleft post-synaptic membrane |
|
|
Glial cells:
Microglia |
Macrophages of the central nervous system.
|
|
|
Glial cells:
Macrophages 1. Astrocytes 2. Oligodendroglia 3. Ependymal Cells 4. Satellite Cells |
1. Glia with many branches. supply neurons by connecting them to blood vessels
2. Produce myelin sheath around CNS neurons 3. Make csf, beat cilia to circulate csf 4. not really sure here |
|
|
Different types of fibers: Alpha, beta, delta, and c fibers
|
the bigger the diameter, the faster the signal travels.
A - biggest D - smallest |
|
|
Meninges
3 layers |
concentric connective tissue, covering the CNS
1. dura mater (toughest, most exterior 2. arachnoid 3. pia consisting of the: glia limitans arachnoid villi choroid plexus |
|
|
Blood-brain barrier...
|
capillaries with occluding junctions
astrocytic endfeet |
|
|
Structures to know:
|
cerebral cortex
cerebellar cortex spinal cord peripheral nerve sensory ganglion sympathetic ganglion parasympathetic ganglion |
|
|
Cerebellar cortex
3 layers |
1. molecular
2. purkinje (cells look like onions!) 3. granular |
|
|
Spinal Cord
1. Ventral motor cells have what type of neurons? |
1. Alpha neurons
|
|
|
Sensory Ganglion:
characteristics |
Heterogeneous cell sizes
pseudounipolar neurons more satellite cells No synapses in ganglion Surrounded by CT capsule |
|
|
Sympathetic ganglion:
characteristics |
Homogeneous cell sizes
cells have angles. why? don't know. oval eccentric nuclei synapses present fewer satellite cells lipofuscin pigment surrounded by CT capsule |
|
|
Parasympathetic ganglion:
characteristics |
post ganglionic cells in wall of target organ
inserted between 2 bands of smooth muscle (hence myenteric plexus) little or no capsule |
|
|
What gives the the connective tissue of bone its physical properties?
|
the extracellular matrix
|
|
|
Types of cells:
Osteoprogenitor cells |
give rise to osteoblasts
|
|
|
Types of cells:
Osteoblast |
Secrete bone matrix to become an osteocyte
|
|
|
Types of cells:
Osteocyte |
Bone cell. lives in a lacuna
|
|
|
Osteoclast
|
resorbs bone. the hollow pocket that forms as a result is called howship's lacunae
|
|
|
Bone structure - non-calcified matrix
1. Collagens - what % of bone matrix? which type of collagen? 2. Ground substance 3. Multiadhesive glycoproteins |
1. 90, 1
2. proteoglycan macromolecules. account for compressive nature of bone 3. attach bone cells to collagen |
|
|
Bone structure: collagen patterning
1. Woven aka 2. Lamellar aka |
1. primary
2. secondary |
|
|
Osteogenesis:
Intramembranous ossification Examples: |
Jaw Bone
Flat bones of skull, face, clavicle |
|
|
Osteogenesis:
Endochondral ossification Examples |
every other bone in the body
LIKE THE HUMERUS |
|
|
Osteogenesis:
Zones in the epiphyseal plate: |
Zone of reserved cartilage (resting zone)
Zone of proliferation Zone of hypertrophy Zone of calcified cartilage Zone of ossification |
|
|
What is the name of the protein that anchors the nuclear pore to the lumenal domain?
|
GP220
|
|
|
1. molecules that get material in the cell
2. molecules that get materials out of cell |
1. importins
2. exportins |
|
|
A monocyte has what shape nucleus?
|
kidney shaped
|
|
|
What type of cristae do mitochondria have that synthesize hormones?
|
tubular cristae
|
|
|
Inactive thing to an active thing requires a _____ which ______ the thing
|
kinase, phosphorylates
|
|
|
Cyclin A goes with cdk...
and is active during... |
2
S phase of cell cycle |
|
|
Cyclin B goes with cdk...
and is active during |
1
M phase of cell cycle |
|
|
which remains constant during Synthesis starting...the cdk2 or the cyclin a?
|
the cdk2
|
|
|
what could be the targets of the cdk2/cyclin A reactions?
|
origins of replication
polymerases nucleotide synthesis histone, etc |
|
|
What could be the targets of the cdk1/cyclin B reaction
|
lamins
histone -> h1 MT proteins MF proteins |
