Hesi A2 Biology

Front 1

Hierarchic system of Organization

Back 1

1. Kingdom

2. Phylum

3. Class

4. Order

5. Family

6. Genus

7. Species

Front 2

First step in an experiment (scientific process).

Back 2

Hypothesis

Front 3

Hypothesis

Back 3

A statement or explanation of certain events or happenings.

Front 4

Second step in an experiment (scientific process).

Back 4

Experiment

Front 5

Experiment

Back 5

A repeatable procedure of gathering data to support or refute the hypothesis.

Front 6

Third step in an experiment (scientific process).

Back 6

Conclusion

Front 7

Water

Back 7

The substance that makes life possible.

Front 8

The molecule of water is made up of...

Back 8

Two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom.

Front 9

The most significant aspect of water is...

Back 9

Polarity of its bonds.

Front 10

It is the _______ of water that allows for hydrogen bonding between molecules.

Back 10

Polar nature

Front 11

Benefits of water's polarity include...

Back 11

1. Hydrogen bonding

2. High specific heat value

3. Versatile solvent properties

Front 12

The specific heat of a molecule is...

Back 12

The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of that molecule by 1* Celsius.

Front 13

Water's high specific heat value means...

Back 13

Resistance to shifts in temperature.

Front 14

Hydrogen bonding results in...

Back 14

Strong cohesive and adhesive properties.

Front 15

Cohesion

Back 15

The ability of a molecule to stay bonded or attracted to another molecule of the same substance.

Front 16

Example of cohesion.

Back 16

Water running together on a newly waxed car.

Front 17

Adhesion

Back 17

The ability of water to bond to or attract other molecules or substances.

Front 18

Example of adhesion.

Back 18

Water sticking when sprayed on a wall.

Front 19

What form does water take when it freezes?

Back 19

Lattice

Front 20

Most important molecules include...

Back 20

1. Carbohydrates

2. Lipids

3. Proteins

4. Nucleic acids

Front 21

Carbohydrates

Back 21

Generally long chains (polymers) of sugars

Front 22

Polymers

Back 22

Long chains

Front 23

Most important functions of carbohydrates.

Back 23

1. Storage

2. Structure

3. Energy

Front 24

Lipids

Back 24

Fats

Front 25

Types of lipids

Back 25

1. Fatty acids

2. Phospholipids

3. Steroids

Front 26

Types of fatty acids

Back 26

1. Saturated

2. Unsaturated

Front 27

Saturated Fats

Back 27

No double bonds in their hydrocarbon tail.

Front 28

Unsaturated Fats

Back 28

One or more double bonds in their hydrocarbon tail.

Front 29

Saturated fats are what type of consistency?

Back 29

Solid

Front 30

Unsaturated fats are what type of consistency?

Back 30

Liquid (at room temperature)

Front 31

Saturated fats are considered _______ by those of the general public.

Back 31

Detrimental

Front 32

Phospholipids

Back 32

Consist of two fatty acids of varying length bonded to a phosphate group

Front 33

In a phospholipid, the phosphate group is _______, and therefore _______.

Back 33

Charged; Polar

Front 34

In a phospholipid, the hydrocarbon tail of the fatty acids is _______.

Back 34

Nonpolar

Front 35

The molecules of a phospholipid combine to...

Back 35

Create a barrier that protects the cell.

Front 36

Steroids

Back 36

A component of membranes; precursors to significant hormones.

Front 37

Proteins

Back 37

The most significant contributor to cellular function; polymers of 20 molecules of amino acids; largest of the biologic molecules

Front 38

Amino acids

Back 38

Organic compounds that contain at least one amino group and a carboxyl group; building blocks of proteins

Front 39

Enzymes

Back 39

Particular types of proteins that act to catalyze different reactions or processes

Front 40

Nucleic acids

Back 40

Components of the molecules of inheritance

Front 41

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Back 41

A unique molecule specific to a particular organism and contains the code that is necessary for replication

Front 42

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Back 42

Used in transfer and as a messenger in most species of the genetic code

Front 43

Metabolism

Back 43

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in an organism

Front 44

Metabolic pathways

Back 44

In a cell, a series of linked chemical reactions, progressing from a standpoint of high energy to low energy

Front 45

Cell

Back 45

The fundamental unit of biology

Front 46

Types of cells

Back 46

1. Prokaryotic

2. Eukaryotic

Front 47

Organelles

Back 47

Any of many cell "organs" or organized components

Front 48

Prokaryotic cells

Back 48

Lack a defined nucleus and do not contain membrane-bound organelles

Front 49

Eukaryotic cells

Back 49

Have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and a series of membrane-bound organelles that carry out the functions of the cell as directed by the nucleus

Front 50

Nucleus

Back 50

Contains the DNA of the cell in chromosomes

Front 51

Chromosomes

Back 51

Compact rod-shaped bodies located within the nucleus of a cell; contain DNA (all the material for the regeneration of the cell, as well as all the instructions for the function of the cell)

Front 52

Ribososmes

Back 52

Organelles that read the RNA produced in the nucleus that translate the genetic instructions to produce proteins

Front 53

Cells with a high rate of protein synthesis generally have a large number of _______.

Back 53

Ribosomes

Front 54

Where can ribosomes be found?

Back 54

1. Endoplasmic reticulum

2. Cytoplasm

Front 55

Types of ribosomes?

Back 55

1. Bound

2. Free

Front 56

Bound ribosomes

Back 56

Found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

Front 57

Free ribosomes

Back 57

Found in the cytoplasm

Front 58

Endoplasmic reticulum

Back 58

A membranous organelle found attached to the nuclear membrane and consists of two continuous parts; partly covered with robosomes

Front 59

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Back 59

Section of the endoplasmic reticulum that is covered with ribosomes

Front 60

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Back 60

Section of the endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes

Front 61

Function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

Back 61

Protein synthesis and membrane production

Front 62

Function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Back 62

Detoxification and metabolism of multiple molecules

Front 63

Golgi apparatus

Back 63

Cell organelle that packages, processes, and distributes molecules about or from the cell; transports materials from the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell

Front 64

Lysosomes

Back 64

Packed with hydrolytic enzymes; where intracellular digestion takes place; hydrolyze proteins, fats, sugars, and nucleic acids

Front 65

Vacuoles

Back 65

Membrane-enclosed structures that have various functions, depending on cell type

Front 66

Phagocytosis

Back 66

Process in which cells engulf food particles through the cell membrane, creating food vacuoles

Front 67

Plant cells have a central vacuole that functions as...

Back 67

1. Storage

2. Waste disposal

3. Disposal

4. Protection

5. Hydrolysis

Front 68

Organelles that produce cell energy

Back 68

1. Mitochondrion

2. Chloroplast

Front 69

Mitochondria

Back 69

Found in most eukaryotic cells and are the site of cellular respiration

Front 70

Chloroplasts

Back 70

Found in plants and are the site of photosynthesis

Front 71

The most important component of the cell

Back 71

Cellular membrane

Front 72

Cellular membrane contribution

Back 72

1. Protection

2. Communication

3. The passage of substances into and out of the cell

Front 73

The cellular membrane consists of...

Back 73

Bilayer of phospholipids with proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins pepper throught

Front 74

Cellular membranes are _______ permeable

Back 74

Selectively

Front 75

Proteins that pass through the cellular membrane act as _______.

Back 75

Transport highways

Front 76

Catabolic pathways that lead to cellular energy production

Back 76

1. Combustion

2. Fermentation

Front 77

Combustion produces _______ energy than fermentation

Back 77

More

Front 78

Aerobic pathway that leads to cellular energy production

Back 78

Combustion

Front 79

Anaerobic pathway that leads to cellular energy production

Back 79

Fermentation

Front 80

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20

Back 80

Respiration

Front 81

Complex steps of respiration

Back 81

1. Glycolysis

2. Krebs cycle

3. Electron transport Chain

Front 82

Currency of the cell in respiration

Back 82

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Front 83

Reducing agent in respiration used as a precursor to produce greater amounts of ATP in the final steps of respiration

Back 83

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)

Front 84

Glycolysis

Back 84

Anaerobic breakdown of glucose; first stage in cell respiration; the conversion of glucose to pyruvate; takes place in the cytosol of the cell

Front 85

Glycolysis produces...

Back 85

1. Two ATP molecules

2. Two pyruvate molecules

3. Two NADH molecules

Front 86

Krebs cycle

Back 86

Series of reactions that occur in the mitochondrion during cellular respiration; pyruvate is transported into a mitochondrion and used in the first series of reactions; takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria

Front 87

Krebs cycle produces what per glucose molecule

Back 87

1. Two ATP molecules

2. Six molecules of carbon dioxide

3. Six NADH molecules

Front 88

Electron transport chain

Back 88

Series of steps in cellular respiration that produces water and ATP; begins with the oxidation of the NADH molecules to produce oxygen and finally to produce water

Front 89

Electron transport chain produces...

Back 89

1. Oxygen

2. Water

3. 28 to 32 ATP molecules

Front 90

For every one molecule of glucose consumed, cellular respiration creates _______.

Back 90

32 to 36 ATP molecules

Front 91

Photosynthesis

Back 91

Chemical process that converts light energy to synthesize carbohydrates; precursor to the glucose molecule

Front 92

6CO2 + 6H20 + Light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Back 92

Photosynthesis

Front 93

_______ is used to produce energy

Back 93

Glucose

Front 94

_______ is used to produce glucose

Back 94

Energy

Front 95

Stages of photosynthesis

Back 95

1. Light reactions

2. Calvin cycle

Front 96

Light reactions of photosynthesis

Back 96

Convert solar energy to chemical energy; the cell accomplishes the production of ATP by absorbing light and using that energy to split a water molecule and transfer the electron, creating nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and producing ATP

Front 97

Calvin cycle

Back 97

Uses the molecules of NADPH and ATP to produce sugar, which is polymerized and stored as a polymer of glucose

Front 98

Cells reproduce in what ways?

Back 98

1. Binary fission

2. Mitosis

3. Meiosis

Front 99

Categorie(s) of cellular reproduction

Back 99

1. Asexual

2. Sexual

Front 100

Type(s) of asexual reproduction

Back 100

1. Binary fission

2. Mitosis

Front 101

Binary Fission

Back 101

Involves bacterial cells; the chromosome binds to the plasma membrane, where it replicates; as the cell grows, it pinches in two, producing two identical cells

Front 102

Mitosis

Back 102

The process in which the DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to two identical daughter cells

Front 103

Stages of Mitosis

Back 103

1. Prophase

2. Prometaphase

3. Metaphase

4. Anaphase

5. Telophase

(6) Cytokinesis

Front 104

Prophase (Mitosis)

Back 104

Chromosomes are visibly separate and each duplicated chromosome has two noticeable sister chromatids

Front 105

Prometaphase (Mitosis)

Back 105

Nuclear envelope begins to disappear, and the chromosomes begin to attach to the spindle that is forming along the axis of the cell

Front 106

Metaphase (Mitosis)

Back 106

Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate (center of cell)

Front 107

Metaphase plate

Back 107

Disk formed during metaphase in which the chromosomes align on equatorial plan of the cell

Front 108

Anaphase (Mitosis)

Back 108

Begins when chromosomes start to separate; the chromatids are considered separate chromosomes

Front 109

Telophase (Mitosis)

Back 109

Chromosomes gather on either side of the now separating cell

Front 110

Cytokinesis

Back 110

Separate from the phases of mitosis; the cell pinches in two, forming two separate identical cells

Front 111

Asexual Reproduction

Back 111

Offspring originate from a single cell, yielding all cells produced to be identical

Front 112

Sexual Reproduction

Back 112

Two cells contribute genetic material to the daughter cells, resulting in significantly greater variations; these two cells find and fertilize each other randomly, making it virtually impossibly for cells to be alike

Front 113

Type(s) of Sexual Reproduction

Back 113

Meiosis

Front 114

Meiosis

Back 114

Type of nuclear division that occurs as part of sexual reproduction; each daughter cell receives the haploid number of chromosomes

Front 115

Stage(s) of Meiosis

Back 115

1. Meiosis One

2. Meiosis Two

Front 116

Meiosis One and Meiosis Two

Back 116

During each process, each daughter cells contain half as many chromosomes as the parent

Front 117

Stage(s) of Meiosis One

Back 117

1. Prophase 1

2. Metaphase 1

3. Anaphase 1

4. Telophase 1

(5) Cytokinesis 1

Front 118

Prophase 1 (Meiosis)

Back 118

Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes of DNA are transferred between these chromosomes, resulting in increased genetic variation

Front 119

Main difference in the phases of Mitosis and Meiosis?

Back 119

In Meiosis, the chromosome pairs separate, no the chromosomes themselves

Front 120

Interphase

Back 120

Precedes Meiosis One and Meiosis Two; stage of the cell cycle during which growth and DNA synthesis occur; where cells are duplicated and the cell prepares for division

Front 121

Stages of Meiosis Two

Back 121

1. Prophase 2

2. Metaphase 2

3. Anaphase 2

4. Telophase 2

Front 122

Meiosis Two

Back 122

Stages are identical to those of Mitosis, however, the resulting four cells have half as many chromosomes as the part cells

Front 123

Gregor Mendel

Back 123

Discovered the basic principles of genetics

Front 124

Alleles

Back 124

Alternate versions of a gene

Front 125

Gregor Mendel found that...

Back 125

For every trait expressed in a sexually reproducing organism, there are at at least two alternative versions of a gene

Front 126

Type(s) of Simple Traits

Back 126

1. Dominant

2. Recessive

Front 127

Homozygous

Back 127

Trait in an organism that contains identical alleles

Front 128

Heterozygous

Back 128

Trait in an organism that contains different alleles

Front 129

Punnett Square

Back 129

Grid used to predict genotype and phenotype of the offspring of sexual reproduction

Front 130

Genotype

Back 130

The combination of alleles

Front 131

Phenotype

Back 131

What traits will be expressed

Front 132

Other method(s) of genetic expression

Back 132

1. Multiple Alleles

2. Pleiotropy

3. Epistasis

4. Polygenic Inheritance

Front 133

Pedigree

Back 133

A family tree that traces the occurrence of a certain trait through several generations; useful in understanding the genetic past as well as the possible future

Front 134

DNA

Back 134

The genetic material of a cell and is the vehicle of inheritance

Front 135

Watson and Crick

Back 135

Described the structure of DNA

Front 136

Structure of DNA

Back 136

Double helix

Front 137

Nitrogenous bases

Back 137

1. Adenine

2. Thymine

3. Guanine

4. Cytosine

Front 138

Each base forms _______ with another base on the complementary strand.

Back 138

Hydrogen bonds

Front 139

Adenine bonds with...

Back 139

Thymine

Front 140

Guanine bonds with...

Back 140

Cytosine

Front 141

Replication of DNA

Back 141

Strands of DNA are separated; with the help of several enzymes, new complementary strands to each of the two original strands are created, producing two new double-stranded segments of DNA identical to the original

Front 142

Each gene along a strand of DNA is a template for _______.

Back 142

Protein synthesis

Front 143

Transcription

Back 143

Process during protein synthesis in which the DNA molecule is used as a template to form mRNA

Front 144

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Back 144

Type of RNA formed from a template of DNA; carries coded information to form proteins; has nitrogenous bases identical to those in DNA

Front 145

Messenger RNA (mRNA) nitrogenous base difference

Back 145

Adenine bonds with Uracil

Front 146

Site of translation

Back 146

Ribosomes

Front 147

Codon

Back 147

Three-base sequence of messenger RNA (mRNA) that codes for a specific amino acid

Front 148

Anticodon

Back 148

Three-base sequence in transfer RNA (tRNA) that carries the corresponding codon from messenger RNA (mRNA)

Front 149

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Back 149

RNA involved in protein synthesis; transfers a specific (corresponding) amino acid to the ribosome and binds it to the mRNA

Front 150

Protein

Back 150

Polymer of amino acids

Front 151

Stop Codon

Back 151

Sequence of bases that terminates translation during protein synthesis

Front 152

DNA Polymerase

Back 152

The enzyme that coordinates the mechanism of obligatory base pairing

Front 153

DNA Replication

Back 153

DNA "unzips" to expose its nucleotide bases; Coordinated by the enzyme DNA polymerase, new DNA nucleotides bind to the exposed bases, forming a new "other half" to each half of the original molecule; after all the bases have new nucleotides bound to them, two identical DNA molecules will be ready for distribution to the two daughter cells

Front 154

Transcription

Back 154

A process in which a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule forms along one gene sequence of a DNA molecule within the cell's nucleus; as it is formed, the mRNA molecule separates from the DNA molecule, is edited, and leaves the nucleus through the large nuclear pores; outside the nucleus, ribosome subunits attach to the beginning of the mRNA molecule and begin the process of translation

Front 155

Translation

Back 155

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring specific amino acids - encoded by each mRNA codon - into place at the ribosome site; As the amino acids are brought into the proper sequence, they are joined together by peptide bonds to form long strands called polypeptides; several polypeptide chains may be needed to make a complete protein molecule