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283 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Sun-centered theory. This theory is also known by many as the Copernican System.
heliocentric theory
Italian scholar, he composed thedealt here with problems concerning ecclesiastical jurisdiction, penances, indulgences, crusades and pilgrimages, vows, excommunication, the general church council, marriage and divorce, and unity with the Greek Orthodox Church. text Defensor pacis (1324),
Marsilius of Padua
which means "that [which] belongs to the school," and was a method of learning taught by the academics (scholastics, school people, or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500. Scholasticism originally began as an attempt to reconcile ancient classical philosophy with medieval Christian theology.
scholasticism
was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism. He is sometimes credited as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method[
Roger Bacon
was an English agricultural pioneer who helped bring about the British Agricultural Revolution; improved the seed drill, a device for sowing seeds effectively. [A.M.]
Jethro Tull
was the prevalent agricultural system in much of Europe from the Middle Ages to as recently as the 20th century in places. Under this system, each manor or village had four very large unfenced fields, farmed in strips by individual families. From the 12th century onwards it was gradually replaced by private fields through various reforms in agricultural technology and local government. [A.M.]
open-field system
was one of the most important formative processes in the evolution of the
landscape of England and Wales; involved the removal
of communal rights, controls or ownership over a piece of land and its conversion
into ‘severalty’, that is a state where the owner had sole control over its use, and of
access to it. [A.M.]
enclosure movement
involved the removal
of communal rights, controls or ownership over a piece of land and its conversion
into ‘severalty’, that is a state where the owner had sole control over its use, and of
access to it; a slave. [A.M.]
chattel
an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable." Economic assets are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations. [A.M.]
mercantilism
is a type of business entity: it is a type of corporation or partnership involving two or more legal persons. Certificates of ownership (or stocks) are issued by the company in return for each financial contribution, and the shareholders are free to transfer their ownership interest at any time by selling their stockholding to others.
In more recent history, the English were first this. The earliest recognized one was the Virginia Company.The East India Company (of England sometimes referred to as "John Company", was one of the most famous. It was granted an English Royal Charter by Elizabeth I in 1600, with the intention of favouring trade privileges in India. Soon afterwards, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company issued shares on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. [A.M.]
joint stock company
also known as the War of the Conquest or referred to as part of the larger conflict known as the Seven Years' War, this was a war fought in North America between 1754 and 1763. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict. To compensate its ally, Spain, for its loss of Florida to the British, France ceded its control of French Louisiana west of the Mississippi. France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the tiny islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in North America. [A.M.]
French and Indian War [1756-1763]
Treaty that officially ended the French and Indian War. The British gained control over the area west of the 13 British Colonies to the Mississippi River. The French agreed to no longer support any colonies in North America, including all of Canada. Since Spain had joined the war on the side of the French, the Spanish were also forced to give up their claim to Florida. The area of North America to the north and east of the Mississippi River was now under British rule. But the Spanish still held their territory west of the Mississippi River and in Central and South America.
[A.M.]
Treaty of Paris [1763]
also known as Clive of India, was a British soldier who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Southern India and Bengal. He is credited with securing India, and the wealth that followed, for the British crown. Together with Warren Hastings he was one of the key figures in the creation of British India.
[A.M.]
Sir Robert Clive
A high-level statesman in Florence, he wrote The Prince (OF).
Niccolo Machiavelli
A privateer who was chosen by Queen Elizabeh to lead a voyage around the world (OF).
Sir Francis Drake
Ruling family in France, Louis XIV was from this royal house (OF),
Bourbons
French protestants (OF).
Hugenots
The day in 1572, when a group of Hugenots were targeted in assassination plots in Paris (OF).
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre
A cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe.
(MCD)
Renaissance
"The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well."
His best known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).
(MCD)
Jacob Burckhardt
A perspective that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality.
(MCD)
Humanism
The concept that government or other entities should exist separately from religion and/or religious beliefs.
(MCD)
Secularism
An Italian Renaissance philosopher famous for his proposal to defend 900 theses on religion, philosophy, natural philosophy and magic against all comers, for which he wrote the famous Oration on the Dignity of Man which has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance", and a key text of Renaissance humanism.
(MCD)
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
An Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance.
(MCD)
Lorenzo de'Medici
An Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest Renaissance humanists; famous for writing Canzoniere and the Trionfi, and poems about a woman who he loved named Laura.
(MCD)
Petrarch
An Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissance author, famous for writing the Book of the Courtier.
(MCD)
Baldassare Castiglione
A form of republicanism originating from and inspired by the governmental forms and writings of classical antiquity. Its main ideas flourished during Classicism and Enlightenment.
(MCD)
Civic Humanism
A leading humanist, historian and a chancellor of Florence. He has been called the first modern historian.
(MCD)
Leonardo Bruni
A school of religious and mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, founded by Plotinus and based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists.
(MCD)
Neo-Platonism
A metaphysical view in philosophy according to which general or abstract terms and predicates exist, while universals or abstract objects, which are sometimes thought to correspond to these terms, do not exist.
(MCD)
Nominalism
An Italian painter and architect from Florence in the late Middle Ages who is generally considered the first painter in the Renaissance style. His masterpiece is the decoration of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.
(MCD)
Giotto
He was the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. His frescoes are the earliest monuments of Humanism.
(MCD)
Masaccio
An Italian painter of the Florentine school during the Early Renaissance famous for paining Primavera (c. 1482) and The Birth of Venus (c. 1485)
(MCD)
Botticelli
The cultural and artistic events of 15th century Italy are collectively referred to as ________, which encompasses the artistic styles of the late Middle Ages (most notably International Gothic) and the early Renaissance.
(MCD)
Quattrocento
A famous early Renaissance Italian artist and sculptor from Florence, most famous for sculpting David.
(MCD)
Donatello
One of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. All of his principal works are in Florence, Italy. He is famous for designing the Dome of the Cathedral of Florence.
(MCD)
Brunelleschi
The study of a nation's economy as a whole and of the interrelationships of its various sectors and components. [SO]
Macroeconomics
Work that was contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who completed the work in their own facility, usually their own home, also known as the workshop system.[SO]
Putting-Out [Domestic] System
Preliminary shift away from agricultural economy in Europe; workers become full- or part-time producers of textile and metal products, working at home but in a capitalist system in which materials, work orders, and ultimate sales depended on urban merchants; prelude to Industrial Revolution.
[SO]
Proto-Industrialization
A measure of output from a production process, per unit of input. [SO]
[Per Capita] Productivity
The assumption of risk and responsibility in designing and implementing a business strategy or starting a business.[SO]
Entrepreneurship
Italian term for a painting technique which overlays translucent layers of colour to create perceptions of depth, volume and form (OF).
sfumato
Italian for light-dark, it is a term in art for a contrast between light and dark (OF).
chiaroscuro
Known as the "Invincible Navy", it was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England with the intention of overthrowing Elizabeth I (OF).
Spanish Armada
Born to the Medici family of Florence, this women became the Queen of France after marrying Henry of Orleans, who became king after his brother Francis I died. Her uncle, Pope Clement and Francis I arranged the marriage when she was 14. She gave birth to three kings of France (OF).
Catherine de Medici
King of Spain who married Mary Tudor. After Mary's death this man offered to marry her sister, Queen Elizabeth. Queen Elizabeth beat the Spanish Armada during his reign (OF).
Philip II
Italian leader who captured captured the Romagna, an area of Italy which remained a papal state until the 19th century. This man received the archbishopric of Valencia from his father the same year he became Pope Alexander VI. His father later made named him cardnial deacon, and after that he gave him the position of deacon (OF).
Cesare Borgia
A Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright. Author of Don Quixote. [TG]
Miguel de Cervantes
The most influential work of literature to emerge from the Spanish Golden Age and the entire Spanish literary canon. Written by Miguel de Cervantes. [TG]
Don Quixote
An English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's preeminent dramatist. Often called England's national poet. [TG]
William Shakespeare
Known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography — and his massive volume Essais contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. [TG]
Michel de Montaigne
Credited with being the first European to use movable type printing, around 1439, and the global inventor of the mechanical printing press. [TG]
Johannes Gutenburg
A metaphysical view in philosophy according to which general or abstract terms and predicates exist, while universals or abstract objects, which are sometimes thought to correspond to these terms, do not exist. Plato was among the first to write of this. [TG]
nominalism
in Catholic Theology the full or partial remission of temporal punishment due for sins which have already been forgiven. Luther protested the selling of these. [TG]
indulgence
A state or place between heaven and hell, in which a person's soul is prepared for the heaven. [TG]
purgatory
The suspension by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases by the Catholic Church. [TG]
dispensations
A split within the Roman Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417. At one time two popes ruled, one from Avignon and one in Rome. [TG]
Great Schism
Gross income - income tax on gross income. Income left that can be spent after tax deductions.
[SO]
Disposable Income
Scottish professor of philosophy who wrote Wealth of Nations. Critic of mercantilism. [SO]
Adam Smith
AKA Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith. An account of economics at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, as well as a rhetorical piece advocating a free market economy as more productive and more beneficial to society.
[SO]
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
The difference between cost of materials and labor to produce a product, and the sale price of a product. It refers to the contribution of the factors of production.
[SO]
Value Added
Allowing industry to be free of government restriction, especially restrictions in the form of tarriffs and government monopolies.
[SO]
Laissez-faire
An economic model based on price, utility and quantity in a market. It concludes that in a competitive market, price will function to equalize the quantity demanded by consumers, and the quantity supplied by producers, resulting in an economic equilibrium of price and quantity.
[SO]
Law of Supply and Demand
The term economists use to describe the self-regulating nature of the marketplace coined by Adam Smith. The founding justification for the laissez-faire economic philosophy.
[SO]
"Invisible Hand"
Economic theories of value according to which the values of commodities are related to the labour needed to produce them.[SO]
Labor Theory of Value
The common law right of the first-born son to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings. This was common practice in Europe in noble families.
[SO]
Primogeniture
born 384 BC, Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece
died 322, Chalcis, Euboea


ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest intellectual figures of Western history. He was the author of a philosophical and scientific system that became the framework and vehicle for both Christian Scholasticism and medieval Islamic philosophy. Even after the intellectual revolutions of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian concepts remained embedded in Western thinking.
Aristotle
[JIC]
field of study that brings together the natural sciences, particularly astronomy and physics, in a joint effort to understand the physical universe as a unified whole.
cosmology
[JIC]
Greek physician, writer, and philosopher who exercised a dominant influence on medical theory and practice in Europe from the Middle Ages until the mid-17th century. His authority in the Byzantine world and the Muslim Middle East was similarly long-lived.
Galen of Pergamum
[JIC]
a form of speculative thought that, among other aims, tried to transform base metals such as lead or copper into silver or gold and to discover a cure for disease and a way of extending life.
alchemy
[JIC]
born Feb. 19, 1473, Torun, Pol.
died May 24, 1543, Frauenburg, East Prussia [now Frombork, Pol.]
Polish astronomer who proposed that the planets operate in a heliocentric, or “Sun-centred,” system. His theory had important consequences for later thinkers of the scientific revolution, including such major figures as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton. Author of the Commentariolus (“Little Commentary”) and the De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”), which did not appear in print until 1543, the year of his death.
Nicholaus Copernicus
[JIC]
a cosmological model in which the Sun is assumed to lie at or near a central point (e.g., of the solar system or of the universe) while the Earth and other bodies revolve around it.
heliocentric theory
[JIC]
The book that contains the final version of Nicolaus Copernicus’ theory, which did not appear in print until 1543, the year of his death.
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (book title)
[JIC]
Act of the British Parliament that granted freedom of worship to Nonconformists, allowing them their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers. [SS]
Toleration Act
a member or supporter of the house of Hanover [SS]
Hanoverians
the speculation mania that ruined many British investors in 1720. It was centered on the fortunes of the South Sea Company.
South Sea Bubble
I lived from384 BC – 322 BC and was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. I wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), I am one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. I was the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. (SD)
Aristotle
I am the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it. (SD)
Cosmology
I was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer and a poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology and lived from AD 90 to AD 168. (SD)
Ptolemy
I am the Ptolemaic worldview of the universe is the theory, now superseded, that the Earth is the center of the universe and other objects go around it. (SD)
Geocentric Theory
I was a prominent Roman physician and philosopher of Greek origin, and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period. My theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for well over a millennium. My account of medical anatomy was based on monkeys as human dissection was not permitted in his time, but it was unsurpassed until the printed description and illustrations of human dissections by Andreas Vesalius in 1543. My account of the activities of the heart, arteries and veins endured until William Harvey established that the blood circulates with the heart acting as a pump in 1628. (SD)
Galen
I am both a philosophy and a practice with an aim of achieving ultimate wisdom as well as immortality, involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties. (SD)
Alchemy
I was a Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist who lived from 1493 to 1541. (SD)
Paracelsus
I am often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist; however some have questioned the scope of my contributions to mathematics and natural philosophy. I believed that everything was related to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate reality and, through mathematics, everything could be predicted and measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles. I lived from 570 BC to 495 BC. (SD)
Pythagoras
I was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body). I am often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. (SD)
Andreas Vesalius
I was the first astronomer to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology, which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. My epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published in 1543 just before my death, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. (SD)
Nicholaus Copernicus
I am the theory that the Sun is stationary and at the center of the universe. (SD)
Heliocentric Theory
I am the seminal work on heliocentric theory and the masterpiece of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543). I offered an alternative model of the universe to the Ptolemy's geocentric system that had been widely accepted since ancient times. (SD)
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
I was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. I lived from 1546 to 1601. (SD)
Tycho Brahe
I was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. I am best known for my eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on my works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. I wrote the Laws of Planetary Motion. (SD)
Johannes Kepler
Created by Johannes Kepler, I am the set of laws that states: The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.
A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. (SD)
Laws of Planetary Motion
28 May 1759 – 23 January 1806) was a British politician of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Also, had a majority in the House of Commons and was able to persuade parliament to pass a series of measures including the India Act that established dual control of the East India Company. [SS]
William Pitt
17th century British philosopher. Author of Leviathan (1651).[SS]
Thomas Hobbes
a book written by Thomas Hobbes.The book concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory. [SS]
Leviathan
was an English physician and philosopher regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers.Considered the first of the British empiricists, he is equally important to social contract theory.[SS]
John Locke
latin for: blank slate.meant that the mind of the individual was born "blank", and it also emphasized the individual's freedom to author his or her own soul.[SS]
tabula rasa
an income tax of the ancien régime in France. It was abolished during the French Revolution. [JG]
vingtième
reign was marked by military successes against the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War and his participation in the War of Spanish Succession to remove the Bourbon king Philip V of Spain. [JG]
HRE Leopold I
helped to save the Habsburg Empire from French conquest; he broke the westward thrust of the Ottomans, liberating central Europe after a century and a half of Turkish occupation. [JG]
Prince Eugene of Savoy
a noble family and royal dynasty of electors, kings and emperors of Prussia, Germany and Romania. [JG]
Hohenzollerns
a German monarchy established by the personal union between the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1618.
[JG]
Brandenburg-Prussia
Born 1546, Died 1601
Danish astronomer whose work in developing astronomical instruments and in measuring and fixing the positions of stars paved the way for future discoveries. His observations—the most accurate possible before the invention of the telescope—included a comprehensive study of the solar system and accurate positions of more than 777 fixed stars.
Tycho Brahe
[JIC]
Born 1517, Died 1630
German astronomer who discovered three major laws of planetary motion, including the fact that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
Johannes Kepler
[JIC]
in astronomy and classical physics, laws describing the motions of the planets in the solar system. They were derived by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, whose analysis of the observations of the 16th-century Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe enabled him to announce his first two laws in the year 1609 and a third law nearly a decade later, in 1618.
Laws of Planetary Motion
[JIC]
Born 1564, Died1642.
Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician who made fundamental contributions to the sciences of motion, astronomy, and strength of materials and to the development of the scientific method. His formulation of (circular) inertia, the law of falling bodies, and parabolic trajectories marked the beginning of a fundamental change in the study of motion. His insistence that the book of nature was written in the language of mathematics changed natural philosophy from a verbal, qualitative account to a mathematical one in which experimentation became a recognized method for discovering the facts of nature. Finally, his discoveries with the telescope revolutionized astronomy and paved the way for the acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric system but his advocacy of that system eventually resulted in an Inquisition process against him.
Galileo Galilei
[JIC]
Published in 1689 by John Locke.[SS]
Second Treatise of Civil Government
The predominant influence, as of a state, region, or group, over another or others [SS]
Hegemony
the first global war. The protagonists were Britain, Prussia and Hanover against France, Austria, Sweden, Saxony, Russia and eventually Spain. Britain declined to commit its main forces on the continent, where it depended on the Prussians and German mercenaries to defend George II's Electorate of Hanover. [SS]
Seven Years War [ 1756-1763 ]
treaty signed on Feb. 15 between Austria and Prussia at the end of the Seven Years War. Prussia retained possession of Silesia and emerged as the leading power in Germany. In return, it promised to support the Archduke Joseph (later Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II) at the election of the king of the Romans. Saxony, included in the peace, was restored to its prewar limits. [SS]
Peace of Hubertusburg
a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously.His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalia political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom. [JG]
Fredrick William, the Great Elector
the landed nobility of Prussia and eastern Germany. [JG]
Junkers
was Elector of Brandenburg (1688 – 1713) and Duke of Prussia in personal union. The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia (1701 – 1713).
Frederick III [King Frederick I]
Frederick II [JG]
"First Servant of the State"
a form of absolute monarchy or despotism in which rulers were influenced by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. [JG]
'Enlightened' Despot
A group of people known for their simple living, plain dress, and resistance to the adoption of many modern conveniences.(PZ)
Amish
The man responsible for the creation of Calvinism (PZ)
John Calvin
The decree of God by which certain souls are foreordained to salvation. (PZ)
Predestination
In the New Testament the name refers to a leader in local Christian congregations,(PZ)
Presbyters
He is noted for his six wives, two of whom were beheaded.(PZ)
Henry VIII
She was the first wife of Henry VIII. (PZ)
Catherine of Aragon)
Second wife of Henry VIII and first one to be beheaded. (PZ)
Anne Boelyn
She was the eldest daughter of Henry VIII and only child of Catherine of Aragon. Later known as Bloody Mary. (PZ)
Mary I
The only son Henry VIII would ever have. (PZ)
Edward VI
He was the sole surviving son of Sir John More, barrister and later judge. (PZ)
Sir Thomas More
historical region of Central Europe located mostly in present-day Poland, with parts in the Czech Republic and Germany.
was seized by King Frederick the Great of Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession. [JG]
Silesia
was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands, and Parma. [JG]
Maria Theresa
a legal mechanism designed to ensure that the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands would be inherited by Emperor Charles VI's daughter, Maria Theresa.
[JG]
Pragmatic Sanction
He was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI. (PZ)
Thomas Cranmer
He was one of the strongest advocates of the English Reformation and later ruled England. (PZ)
Thomas Cromwell
An old Russian aristocratic family that emerged for the Russian Tsar after the Rurik Dynasty second Dynasty.
Romanovs
Chamber of Parliment the Russian Federation. General term for a consultative body or entity.
Duma
Was tsar of Russia from 1682 to 1725. He centralised government, modernised the army, created a navy and increased the subjugation and subjection of the peasants.
Peter the Great
Shooters or Russian Gaurdsmen in the early 16th- 18th century, armed with firearms.
Streltsy
Determined a person's position and status according to service to the Emperor rather than according to birth or seniority. A formal list of positions and ranks in the military, government, and court of Imperial Russia.
Table of Ranks
Comprised about 250 people. Its chief purposes were to examine the international situation and to strengthen the anti-Turkish coalition, and gather information on the economic and cultural life of Europe.
Grand Embassy
It was in 1703 by Peter the Great founded on marshy ground near the sea to the right of access to Russia Baltic Sea enforce.
St. Petersburg
Was the decisive victory of Peter I of Russia over Swedish Empire in one of the most famous of the battles of the Great Northern War.
Battle of Poltava
The ability of one group to manipulate and control the actions of another group by withholding funding, or putting stipulations on the use of funds. most often utilized by forces within a government that do not have direct executive power but have control over budgets and taxation.
Power of the Purse
Felt that the English Reformation had not gone far enough, and that the Church of England was tolerant of practices which they associated with the Catholic Church.
Puritans
Before his coronation as king of France at Chartres, he changed his faith from Calvinism to Catholicism, and, in 1598, he enacted the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious liberties to the Protestants and thereby effectively ended the civil war. One of the most popular French kings, both during and after his reign, showed great care for the welfare of his subjects and displayed an unusual religious tolerance for the time. -JB
Henry (IV) of Navarre
Offered many specific concessions to the huguenots in France, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marks the end of the religious wars that tore apart the population of France during the second half of the 16th century. -JB
Edict of Nantes
Was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history. The war was fought primarily (though not exclusively) in Germany and at various points involved most of the countries of Europe. Naval warfare also reached overseas and shaped the colonial formation of future nations. Initially the war was fought largely as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, although disputes over the internal politics and balance of power within the Empire played a significant part. Gradually the war developed into a more general conflict involving most of the European powers. Lasted from 1618 to 1648. -JB
Thirty Years' War [1618-1648]
At Prague Castle on May 23, 1618, an assembly of Protestants, led by Count Thurn, tried two Catholic Imperial governors for violating the Letter of Majesty (Right of Freedom of Religion), found them guilty, and threw them out of the windows of the Bohemian Chancellery. -JB
Defenestration of Prague
The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands; also Dutch Republic. was a European republic between 1581 and 1795, in about the same location as the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. -JB
United Provinces
A Bohemian soldier and politician, gave his services (an army of 30,000 to 100,000 men) during the Danish period (1625-1629) of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. He became the supreme commander of the armies of the Habsburg Monarchy and one of the major figures of the Thirty Years' War. -JB
Albrecht von Wallenstein
Founder of the Swedish Empire. He led his armies until his death in battle while leading a charge during 1632 in the bloody Thirty Years' war. -JB
Gustavus Adolphus
King Louis XIII's chief minister. He sought to consolidate royal power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state. -JB
Cardinal Richelieu
signed on May 15 and October 24, 1648, respectively, and written in French, that ended both the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. -JB
Peace of Westphalia [1648]
A famous treatise on witches, written two Inquisitors of the Catholic Church. The main purpose was systematically to refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, refute those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to prove that witches were more often women than men, and to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find them out and convict them. -JB
Malleus Maleficarum
The first joint king of England and Scotland. Known as "King of Scotts"
James I
Engaged in struggle for power with the Parliament of England. His last years were spent fighting the English civil war against English and Scottish Parliaments. {CNS}
Charles I
Tax that Charles I of England tried to levy without the consent of Parliament. Intended for costal towns during a time of war. {CNS}
Ship money
Archbishop of Canterbury and one of the advisers of King Charles I. at the time of English Civil War.{CNS}
William Laud
PetitionsThat the Parliament of England 1628 to King Charles I addressed. It is an important document in the Britain's constitutional history and History of human rights. {CNS}
Petition of Rights
the principle that only a Protestant could wear the crown of England. A new coronation oath required the monarch to uphold Protestantism and the statutes, laws, and customs of the realm as well. {CNS}
Triennial Act
It protects the individual from harming him or herself, or from being harmed by the judicial system. A legal action, or writ, through which a person can seek relief from the unlawful detention of him or herself, or of another person. {CNS}
Writ of Habeas Corpus
He was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. {CNS}
Oliver Cromwell
A list of grievances presented to King Charles I of England by the English Parliament, during the Long Parliament. It was one of the chief events which were to percipitate the English Civil War.
Grand Remonstrance
An old Russian aristocratic family that emerged for the Russian Tsar after the Rurik Dynasty second Dynasty. {CNS}
Romanovs
Chamber of Parliment the Russian Federation. General term for a consultative body or entity. {CNS}
Duma
Was tsar of Russia from 1682 to 1725. He centralised government, modernised the army, created a navy and increased the subjugation and subjection of the peasants. {CNS}
Peter the Great
Shooters or Russian Gaurdsmen in the early 16th- 18th century, armed with firearms. {CNS}
Streltsy
Determined a person's position and status according to service to the Emperor rather than according to birth or seniority. A formal list of positions and ranks in the military, government, and court of Imperial Russia. {CNS}
Table of Ranks
Comprised about 250 people. Its chief purposes were to examine the international situation and to strengthen the anti-Turkish coalition, and gather information on the economic and cultural life of Europe.
Grand Embassy
It was in 1703 by Peter the Great founded on marshy ground near the sea to the right of access to Russia Baltic Sea enforce. {CNS}
St. Petersburg
Was the decisive victory of Peter I of Russia over Swedish Empire in one of the most famous of the battles of the Great Northern War. {CNS}
Battle of Poltava
The ability of one group to manipulate and control the actions of another group by withholding funding, or putting stipulations on the use of funds. most often utilized by forces within a government that do not have direct executive power but have control over budgets and taxation. {CNS}
Power of the Purse
Felt that the English Reformation had not gone far enough, and that the Church of England was tolerant of practices which they associated with the Catholic Church. {CNS}
Puritans
(French: “Nobility of the Robe”), in 17th- and 18th-century France, a class of hereditary nobles who acquired their rank through holding a high state office. Their name was derived from the robes worn by officials. (L.E)
noblesse de robe (L.E.)
an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, government plays a protectionist role in the economy; by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of tariffs and subsidies. (L.E.)
mercantilism (L.E.)
King of France from 1610 until 1643 when he died. Much of his decision making was influenced if not made completely by Cardinal Richelieu. Son of Henry IV. (L.E)
Louis XIII (L.E.)
Chief advisor for Louis XIII. Considered to be one of the greatest polititians in French history. (L.E.)
Cardinal Richelieu (L.E.)
the "sun king", constructed a palace at Versailles to hold his nobility while he watched over them. spent a great amount of money to better the military. (L.E.)
Louis XIV (L.E.)
name of Louis XIV for his obsession with a particular symbol of power. (L.E.)
"Sun King" (L.E.)
an Italian cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the chief minister of France from 1642 until his death. Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. advisor of Louis XIV (L.E.)
Cardinal Mazarin(L.E.)
a civil war in France, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The name of the word comes the word sling. (L.E.)
Fronde (L.E.)
a doctrine of royal absolutism. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God. (L.E.)
divine-right monarchy (L.E.)
a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a masterly French stylist.
Court preacher to Louis XIV of France, Bossuet was a strong advocate of political absolutism and the divine right of kings. (L.E.)
Bishop Jacques Bossuet (L.E.)
"I am the state!" Louis XIV (L.E.)
L' état c'est moi! (L.E.)
built originally as a hunting lodge then remade into a great palace that housed Louis XIV's nobles as he watched over them.(L.E.)
Versailles(L.E.)
huge believer in Mercantilism and he basically kept France afloat while Louis XIV spent all of the nation's wealth. Focused on internal trade. No exports. (L.E.)
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (L.E.)
this phrase symbolizes France's unification in the 17th century. represents revocation of the Edict of Nantes and thus the end to full rights to Heugenots(L.E.)
One King, One Law, One Faith! (L.E.)
War fought in Europe in the early 18th century over whether or not Spain and France would unite as one monarchy under one ruler. (L.E.)
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) (L.E.)
Daughter of King James V who plotted against Queen Elizabeth for she believed she was the true ruler of England.
Mary Stuart of Scotland (MB)
The buying or selling of spiritual things, particularly Church offices and benefices
Simony (MB)
Considered to be one of the Church's most important council it convened in Trento in twenty-five sessions for three periods.
Council of Trent (MB)
Having elaborate symmetrical ornamentation.
Baroque (MB)
Was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church.
Index of Prohibited Books (MB)
An order of Roman Catholic clergy, the Jesuits, having a tradition of education, theological scholarship, and missionary work.
Society of Jesus (MB)
Prolific Flemish baroque painter; knighted by the English king Charles.
Peter Paul Rubens (MB)
Was an individualistic Spanish painter who was the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV.
Diego Velázquez (MB)
Painted her version of Judith Slaying Holofernes when living in Italy.
Artemisia Gentileschi (MB)
A well rounded artist who wrote plays, sculpted, and created blue prints for buildings. His talents got him to become the successor of Michelangelo.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini (MB)
parliamentary forces
(AMH)
roundheads
sat for 20yrs.; used the Scottish rebellion as a means of pressing its own demands.
(AMH)
Long parliament
Established by Oliver Cromwell and provided the basis for morale, discipline, and the will to fight.
(AMH)
New Model Army
What was left of paliament after a majority of the members had been driven out.
(AMH)
"Rump" parliament
Appealed to natural rights and to the rights of Englishmen, asked for a nearly universal manhood suffrage, equality or representation, a written constitution, and subordination of parliament to a reformed body of voter.
(AMH)
Levellers
Insisted that all believers could have revelations of spiritual truth by rejecting various social and religious hierachies, and by allowing or encouraging women to preach at their meetings.
(AMH)
Society of Friends
A person who goverened through representative bodies devised by himself and his follower, under a written constitution, the instrument of government. But placed under a military rule.
(AMH)
Lord Protector
Decentralized the adminisration of the Poor Law, making each parish responsible for its own paupers.
(AMH)
The Act of Settlement
Two years after Cromwell's death, royalty was restored and he became king of England and Scotland.
(AMH)
Charles II
Renewed legislation against Dissenters and also made it impossible for Catholics to serve in the government or in the army and navy.
(AMH)
Test Act
The King's supporters
(AMH)
Tories
Backed the middle class and merchants of London
(AMH)
Whigs
In the Spanish colonial caste system, this was people of pure or mostly Spanish ancestry born in the New World. In the Spanish colonial caste pyramid, this was directly below the peninsulares.
Creolles


J.D.
In the Spanish colonial caste system, this was a Spanish-born or mainland Spanaird living in the New World. This was at the very top of the Spanish caste system pyramid.
Peninsulares


J.D.
This was a maritime insurance association in London that formed the first modern European insurance company in 1688.
Lloyd's of London


J.D.
He spoke out strongly against Europeans enslaving the Indians in the Americas. Instead, he suggested that black Africans replace them. He later regretted this.
Bartolome de Las Casas


J.D.
In this system, natives of colonial America were assigned or given to spanish land owners who taught the natives the Spanish language and Catholic faith. In return, landowners recieved labor work from the natives. It was an attempt to define the status of the Indian population in the American colonies.
Encomienda System


J.D.
This man built his own telescope and observed and studied the stars and moon. He wrote the book "Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World" in 1632 defending the ideas and views of Copernicus. He was imprisoned and threatened with toture for his claims. Although he recanted, he was became known for saying "And yet it moves." He also confirmed and supported Copernicus' theory that the sun is the center of the earth.
Galileo Galilei


J.D.
He created the first, second, and third laws of motion, and he was known for discovering gravity. He also invented calculus and is known for creating the idea of a perfect clockwork universe.
Isaac Newton


J.D.
This book was written by Galileo in 1632, and it compared the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system. This book was a key reason why Galileo was charged with heresy and forced to recant.
Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World

J.D.
This book was Galileo's last before he died. It held much of his works in physics over the past thirty years.
Two New Sciences


J.D.
A theory that claims that knowledge arises from experiences. Known as inductive reasoning.
empiricism


J.D.
He was known for correctly identifying systematic circulation and the properties pumped blood around the heart.
William Harvey


J.D.
a 3-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Isaac Newton. [JV]
Principia Mathematica
theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge [JV]
Epistemology
knowledge or justification is independent of experience [JV]
A priori
a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge [JV]
Scientific method
a type of reasoning that involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion [JV]
Inductive reasoning
- an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, and author during the Scientific Revolution. (1561-1626)
Francis Bacon
reasoning which constructs or evaluates deductive arguments [JV]
Deductive reasoning
was a French philosopher, mathematician, physicist, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the "Father of Modern Philosophy" [JV]
Rene Descartes
Descartes concept of dualism, “I reflect therefore I am.” [JV]
Cartesian dualism
the theory that all natural phenomena can be explained by laws of nature [JV]
Mechanism
was a French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher, wrote in defense of the scientific method. (1623-1662) [JV]
Blaise Pascal
a special case of the law of total probability applying to discrete random variables [JV]
Law of Probability
promotes the idea that God is better understood as an abstract principle representing natural law, existence, and the Universe [JV]
Pantheism
a great Dutch philosopher who was raised in the Jewish community in Holland [JV]
Benedict de Spinoza
a prominent group of European bankers that replaced the Medici family
[LC]
The Fuggers
developed in europe in the 12th century, referred to as the embryonic beginning of capitalism [LC]
Merchant Capitalism
Portuguese prince noted for his patronage of voyages of discovery among the Madeira Islands and along the western coast of Africa although he never embarked on any exploratory voyages himself
[LC]
Prince Henry the Navigator
Was a Portuguese explorer that was the first to sail directly from Europe to India
[LC]
Vasco da Gama
was a huge exchange of animals, foods, people, communicable diseases, and ideas that occured between the western and eastern hemispheres after Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas [LC]
Columbian Exchange
an explorer, navigator, and colonizer who brought a greater understanding of the America's to Europe, attempted to create a settlement on the island of Hispaniola, and initiated the process of Spanish colonization [LC]
Cristoforo Colombo
Portuguese explorer credited as the first person to circumnavigate the globe, although he never completed the mission himself [LC]
Ferdinand Magellan
document created by Pope Alexander VI that divided the new world between Spain and Portugal through a line of demarcation [LC]
Treaty of Tordesillas
an English court of law made up of Privy Counselors as well as common law judges. Was set up to ensure fair enforcement of laws against prominent people and court sessions were held in secret [LC]
Court of Star Chamber
was a legislative assembly made up of three estates that represented different classes of French subjects that had no power in its own right and functioned mainly for royal propoganda [LC]
Estates General
family known for being the origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman emperors between 1452 and 1740, had rulers in Austria and Spain and several other countries as well. Dynasty began in Austria and spread through a series of marriages that connected different countries, such as Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, and Burgundy, together [LC]
Hapsburgs
Its purpose is to instruct the soul in Christian perfection with Christ as the Divine Model. (AT)
the imitation of christ
English theologian whose objections to Roman Catholic doctrine anticipated the Protestant Reformation (AT)
John Wycliffe
The name given to the followers of John Wyclif (AT)
Lollards
Czechoslovakian religious reformer who anticipated the Reformation; he questioned the infallibility of the Catholic Church was excommunicated (1409) for attacking the corruption of the clergy; he was burned at the stake (AT)
Jan Hus
As a priest and theology professor, he confronted indulgence salesmen with his The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. Luther strongly disputed their claim that freedom from God's punishment of sin could be purchased with money. His refusal to retract all of his writings got him excommunication by Pope Leo X
Martin Luther
Written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Luther used these theses to display his displeasure with some of the Roman Catholic clergy's abuses, most notably the sale of indulgences; this ultimately gave birth to Protestantism. (AT)
95 Theses
was a German Dominican preacher remembered for selling indulgences and for a couplet attributed to him, "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings / the soul from purgatory springs." (AT)
Johann Tetzel
annulling all privileged granted to Protestants (AT)
Edict of Nance
was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I of Spain, of the Spanish realms from 1516 until his abdication in 1556 (AT)
Charles V
the Christian doctrine of the coexistence of the body and blood of Jesus Christ with the bread and wine of the Eucharist (AT)
consubstantiation
Christians of the Radical Reformation (AT)
Anabaptists
The belief that Christ's second coming would inaugurate a thousand-year period of divine rule on earth. (AT)
millenarianism
group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after the Frisian Menno Simons (1496–1561), who, through his writings, articulated and thereby formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders (AT)
Mennonites
leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. (AT)
Ulrich Zwingli
a series of both economic and religious revolts in which peasants, townsfolk and nobles all participated. (AT)
Peasants' War (1524-1525)
hatred (or contempt) of women or girls
Misogyny


(SR)
an alliance of trading cities and their guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly along the coast of Northern Europe
Hanseatic League


(SR)
a collection of 100 novellas by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio
The Decameron


(SR)
an Italian author and poet, a friend, student, and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist and the author of a number of notable works including the Decameron, On Famous Women, and his poetry in the Italian vernacular
Giovanni Boccaccio


(SR)
the process which was used to end some traditional rights, such as mowing meadows for hay, or grazing livestock on land which is owned by another person, or a group of people
Enclosure


(SR)
a prolonged conflict lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne, which was vacant with the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings
Hundred Years' War


(SR)
the (political) community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands.
Flanders


(SR)
a very unpopular tax on salt in France before 1790
Gabelle


(SR)
a direct land tax on the French peasantry and non-nobles in Ancien Régime France. The tax was imposed on each household and based on how much land it held.
Taille


(SR)
a series of dynastic civil wars between supporters of the rival houses of Lancaster and York, for the throne of England. They are generally accepted to have been fought in several spasmodic episodes between 1455 and 1487 (although there was related fighting both before and after this period). The war ended with the victory of the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who founded the House of Tudor,
Wars of the Roses[1328-1453]


(SR)
a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a pope
Papal bull


(SR)
also known as the "Babylonian Captivity", was the period from 1305 to 1378 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon (modern-day France).
Avignon Papacy


(SR)
convoked by Pope Innocent III with the papal bull of April 19, 1213, and the Council gathered in November of 1215. Due to the great length of time between the Council's convocation and meeting, a great many bishops had the opportunity to attend.
4th Lateran Council[1215]


(SR)
that [which] belongs to the school," and was a method of learning taught by the academics (scholastics, school people, or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500
Scholasticism


(SR)
also known as Doctor Mirabilis (Latin: "wonderful teacher"), was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism. He is sometimes credited as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by the works of Plato and Aristotle via early Islamic scientists and Jewish scholars: Avicenna, Averroes, and Maimonides
Roger Bacon


(SR)
(c. 1288 - c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, from Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near East Horsley.
William of Ockham


(SR)
an Italian poet of the Middle Ages. His Divine Comedy, originally called Commedia and later called Divina by Boccaccio, is often considered the greatest literary work composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece of world literature.
Dante Alighieri


(SR)
a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the remaining twenty-two in verse).
The Canterbury Tales


(SR)
a Venetian-born woman of the medieval era who strongly challenged misogyny and stereotypes prevalent in the male-dominated realm of the arts. As a poet, she was well-known and highly regarded in her own day.
Christine de Pizan


(SR)
The war fought by Austria, Britain, and the Netherlands against Prussia, France, and Spain in support of the right of succession of Maria Theresa to the Austrian throne and against the territorial aims of Prussia

[MADDII]
War of The Austrian Succession 1740-1748
Established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock.

[MADDII]
The Dutch East India Company
On June 3, 1621, it was granted a charter for a trade monopoly in the West Indies (meaning the Caribbean) by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants. The company became instrumental in the Dutch colonization of the Americas.

[MADDII]
Dutch West India Co.
a Dutch painter and etcher. He is generally considered one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art history and the most important in Dutch history.His contributions to art came in a period that historians call the Dutch Golden Age. greatest creative triumphs are exemplified especially in his portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible.

[MADDII]
Rembrandt Van Rijn
A Dutch painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of ordinary bourgeois life. His entire life was spent in the town of Delft.

[MADDII]
Jan Vermeer
Originally, and indeed during most of its history, the title (derived from Caesar) meant Emperor in the European medieval sense of the term.

[MADDII]
Tsar
Grand Duke of Muscovy from 1533 to 1547 and was the first ruler of Russia to assume the title of tsar (or czar). His long reign saw the conquest of Tartary and Siberia and subsequent transformation of Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state

[MADDII]
Ivan IV ["the terrible"]
Recognized as a member of the highest rank of the feudal Bulgarian, Romanian, Russian, and Ukrainian aristocracy, second only to the ruling princes, from the 10th century through the 17th century.

[MADDII]
Boyars