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248 Cards in this Set

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Monosaccharides
C6H12O6
Smallest Carb
-Fructose
-Galactose
-Glucose
Disaccharides
Pairs of monosaccharides
-Maltose
-Sucrose
-Lactose
Polysaccharides
-Long chains of monosaccharides. (2-3,000)
-Formed by covalent bond
-Glycogen- made only of glucose
Lipids
Cholesterol
-Found in every cell in our body.
-Used to make steroids.
-Used to transport triglycerides.
Triglycerides
-Glycogen with fatty acid tails composed of H and C.
Carbon tend to form 4 covalent bonds.
-Saturated fatty acids are full of H+.
-Unsaturated fatty acids are not full of H+.
Amino Acids
-Smallest building blocks of proteins.
-20 different kinds, 10 essential and 10 non-essential
-Structure consists of nitrogen group, "R" or variable group and a carboxyl group.
Essential Examples
-Leucine, Lysine, Valine.
Non-essential Examples
-Glycine, Proline, Serine.
Single Example
-Epinephrine
Peptides
Short chains of amino acids (2-50)
Example
-Oxytocin- hormone that causes smooth muscle in the uterus to contract.
Proteins
Long chains of amino acids (over 50)

AKA- polypeptides
Example
-Collagen
Genes
Small regions on a chromosome that codes for amino acid sequences
pH Scale
Used to measure H+ concentrations.
-Blood pH is 7.35-7.45
-Acids have higher H+ concentrations and range from 0-7, with 0 being the strongest acid.
-Alkaline solutions have lower H+ concentrations and range from 7-14, with 14 being the strongest base.
-The scale is inverse.
Genetic Info Basics
-Most human cells have 46 pieces of DNA.
-23 differentiated types, with 2 copies of each type.
-There are 22 autosomes and 1 hetereosome (#23)
-Diploid or 2n- means 2 copies of a set of DNA (46).
-Haploid or 1n- means 1 set of chromosomes.
-4n means that there is 4 copies or 93 pieces total.
Cell Cycle
Interphase
-Interphase is the non-dividing part of a cells life.
-The part of the cell cycle between one miotic phase and the next, from the end of cytokenesis to the beginning of the next phase.
G1
G0
S
G2
First Gap Phase
G1 Phase
-Growth and normal metabolic roles.
-2n (46)
This is an interval between cell division and DNA replication.
-Synthesizes proteins
-Grows
-Carries out preordained tasks for the body.
-Accumulates materials needed to replicate DNA.
Gap Zero Phase
GO Phase
-Cell lives but normal functions cease.
-Resting phase
-When a cell cannot go into G0 phase, it is a sign of cancer.
Synthesis Phase
S Phase
-2n-4n (46-92)
-Cell makes duplicate copies of its centrioles and all of its nuclear DNA.
-Then 2 identical sets of DNA molecules are able to be divided between daughter cells.
Second Gap Phase
G2 Phase
-4n (92)
-Cellular content (other than DNA) is replicated. Ex.- centrosomes, microtubules.
-Synthesizes enzymes that control cell division.
-Check DNA replications and repair errors.
Miotic Phase
M phase
-Replicates nucleus
-Pinches in the middle to form furrow cleavage and eventually splits to from 2 daughter cells.
Mitosis
Mitosis is used to make identical daughter cells.
Functions:
-Forms embryonic cells
-Growth of new cells and tissues
-Replaces and repairs cells and tissues
Phospholipid
-Hydrophilic phosphate head
-Hydrophobic fatty acid tails
Semipermeable
Water, lipids and neutral molecules can pass but larger molecules and charged molecules or atoms cannot.
Cytoplasm
-The contents of a cell between its plasma membrane and it nuclear envelope, consists of:
cytosol, organelles, inclusions and the cytoskeleton.
Cytosol
Fluid (H2O) inside the cell
Nucleus
-Surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
-Contains nucleolus which produces ribosomes.
-Ribosomes contain DNA.
Ribosomes
-Small granules of protein and RNA found in the nucleoli, cytosol, rough E.R and nuclear envelopes.
-They read and code messages (RNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins specified by the code.
Mitochondria
-Organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP, metabolic H2O.
-CRISTAE
Golgi Complex
or
Golgi Apparatus
A small system of cisternae that synthesize carbohydrates and put finishing touches on protein and glycoprotein synthesis.
Cisterns
Fluid filled space or sac
Endoplasmic Reticulum
"little network within the cytoplasm."
-It is a system of interconnected channels called cisterna, enclosed by a unit membrane.
Rough E.R.
-Cisternae are parallel, flat sacs covered with ribosomes.
-Produces phospolipids and proteins of the plasma membrane.
-Synthesizes proteins that are either packaged in other organelles or secreted from the cell.
Smooth E.R.
-Cisternae are more tubular, branch out more and lack ribosomes.
-It is a continuous network.
-Synthesizes steroids and other lipids.
-Detoxifies alcohol and other drugs.
-Manufactures all the membranes of the cell.
Cilia
AKA projections
They are small, numerous and they move together to move mucus, forming a ciliary escalator.
Found in the respiratory system and the female reproductive system.
Leukocyte Types (Basic)
Granulocyte:
Basophil
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Agranulocyte:
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Stages of Mitosis
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase
1st Stage of Mitosis
-Nuclear envelope dissolves.
-Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.
-Centrosomes migrate to the opposite ends of the cell by way of expanding microtubules.
-Identical copies of DNA/chromosomes find each other and pair up.
-DNA is then pushed towards the middle of the cell.
Chromatin
Loose uncoiled DNA
Chromosomes
Tightly coiled DNA
Metaphase
2nd Stage of Mitosis
DNA is lined up on the midline of the cell
Anaphase
3rd Stange of Mitosis
Microtubules pull centromeres apart
Telophase
-"New" nuclear envelope forms
-Cleavage furrow forms
-Cell divides aka cytokenisis
Centromere
Protein that holds copies of DNA together.
Chromatid
one copy of a duplicated chromosome.
Sister Chromatid
Identical copies of DNA held together by a centromere.
Benign
-Cells that cannot spread to new locations.
-Sometimes they are encapsulated by proteins
Malignant
Cells that have the ability to spread
Non-disjunction
The failure of one pair of DNA to split during meiosis 1
Proto-oncogene
-Normal genes that code for growth factors.
-If they become mutated they become oncogenes, which cause cancer.
Ex. Growth hormone- can make things bigger and can make more numbers of a certain thing.
Tumor Suppressor Gene
-Produces proteins that regulate the cell cycle
P53 Gene
-Found on chromosome 17.
-You nee BOTH copies of this.
-Common CA's linked with this gene; prostate, colon and breast.
Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)
-Kills primitive tumors.
-Produced by leukocytes and chondrocytes.
Meiosis
-Sex cell production.
-This process is used to form haploid gametes.
-Meiosis I is also referred to as reduction division
-In the female system the 2nd oocyte is ovulated and normally dies, unless met by a sperm.
-If it becomes fertilized it is referred to as a zygote
Gametes
Sperm or egg/ovum
Causes of CA
-Mutations- changes in genes
-Carcinogens- mutation causing agents:
1. Chemicals
2. Radiation
3. Viruses
Chemicals
-Cig Smoke, lead, mercury, asbestos.
Radiation
-U.V.
Viruses
-not living, need a host cell
Skin Functions
-Protection
-Communication
-Excretion (H+, Na+, urea)
-Temperature regulation
-Vitamin D production
Vitamin D Production
-Skin will synthesize the 1st form of vitamin D.
-To do this you need cholesterol and UV rays.
-In the dermis cholesterol is in blood and is converted into vitamin D3.
-It then travels to the liver and is turned into calcidiol.
-It then travels to the kidney and is converted into calcitriol, most bio available form.
Skin Structure
Top to bottom:
Epidermis
-Stratum Corneum
-Stratum Lucidum
-Stratum Granulosum
-Stratum Spinosum
-Stratum Basale
Dermis
Hypodermis (not a primary layer)
Epidermis:
-Stratified squamous tissue
-Avascular
Epidermis Details
Top to Bottom:
1. Stratum Corneum- dead cells, contains keratin, the oldest cells.
2. Stratum Lucidum
3. Stratum Granulosum
4. Stratum Spinosum
5. Stratum Basale:
-New skin cells form here
-Contains keratinocytes, stem cells (unipotent)
-Melanocytes are found here.
Dermis Details
-Highly vascular
-Nervous tissue
-Smooth muscle (found in vessels and arrector pili)
-Connective tissue (lots of collagen)
Hypodermis Details
-AKA subq or subcutaneous
-Large vessels
-Adipose tissue and subcutaneous fat
Carcinoma
Cancer arising in epithelial tissue (about 90% of cancer).
Sarcoma
Cancer arising in muscle or connective tissue.
Melanoma
Cancer of melanocytes, highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy.
Lymphoma
Any tumor of the lymphoid tissue, can be benign or malignant.
Hodgkins Disease
Cancer of lymph nodes, characterized by large cells of unknown origin called Reed-Sternberg cells, treat with radiation and has high cure rate.
Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
Includes all lymph cancers except Hodgkin’s, several different sub-grades exist
Retinoblastoma
Cancer of the eyes in infants caused when both copies of the tumor suppressor genes (Rb) are damaged
Leukemia
Cancer of hemopoietic tissues, which results in abn number of leukocytes.
Hemostasis
-Blood loss prevention
-3 Steps:
1. Vascular Spasm- almost instant
2. Platelet Plug Formation- takes minutes
3. Coagulation
Hemostasis
Blood Loss Prevention
Step 1
Vascular Spasm:
-Vasoconstriction of the damaged vessel.
-This is dependent on smooth muscle.
-It is easier to vasoconstrict a jagged cut than a clean cut due to extra surface area.
-Capillaries never vasoconstrict.
Hemostasis
Blood Loss Prevention
Step 2
Platelet Plug Formation:
-Platelets will adhere to exposed collagen.
-After platelets stick to collagen they "degranulate" thromboxane A, which causes platelets to stick together.
Hemostasis
Blood Loss Prevention
Step 3
Coagulation:
-Formation of a clot or thrombus.
Must have:
-Normal blood Ca+
-Vitamin K
-Clotting factors
Platelets
-fragments from megakaryocytes
-AKA thrombocytes
-Platelets can adhere to collagen and cholesterol
Thromboxane A
Released by platelets and cause platelets to stick to each other.
Embolus
Traveling blood clot
Clotting Factors
Proteins involved in clotting.
-Genes for clotting proteins are only on the X chromosome.
Vitamin K
Made by bacteria in the large intestine.
Steps in Coagulation
1. Damage
2. Thromboplastin release from para-vascular cells.
3. Thromboplastin is converted into prothrombin activator.
4. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin into thrombin.
5. Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin threads.
Thromboplastin
Clotting factor
Prothrombin
-Clotting factor
-A normal component of plasma
-Inactive
Fibrinogen
-Clotting factor
-Plasma protein
-Inactive
Clots
Contains:
-Fibrin- could not happen w/o
-RBCs
-WBCs
-Platelets
-Plasminogen
Retraction:
-Shrinking of a clot.
-Platelets use pseudopods to pull on fibrin.
Homeostasis
The ability to maintain a stable internal environment. Being ill is when we are unable to maintain homeostasis.
-Positive Feedback- processes that become exaggerated, they get bigger and bigger.
-Negative Feedback- a loop that helps to maintain homeostasis.
Prothrombin Activator
Converts or activates prothrombin into thrombin.
Thrombin
Active form of prothrombin.
-It converts or activates fibrinogen into fibrin.
Fybrinolysis
Refers to the normal breakdown of clots. After several days plasminogen in converted into plasmin, which destroys fibrin.
Plasmin
A fibrin dissolving enzyme that breaks up a clot.
Anticoagulants
Prevent or interfere with clotting.
-Coumadin/Warfarin- prevents vitamin K synthesis. Systematic approach
Heparin- prevents prothrombin from becoming thrombin.
-used in surgery
-more localized
-used in needles
Burns
Causes:
Heat, Electricity, Chemical, Radiation,
Cold
Risks:
-Infection
-Sepsis
-Dehydration
Classifications (least severe to worst)
1. 1st degree
2. 2nd degree
3. 3rd degree
First Degree Burn
Superficial Partial Thickness Burn
-Least severe
-Damage only to the epidermis
Second Degree Burn
Deep Partial Thickness Burn
Epidermis and a portion of the dermis will be damaged.
Third Degree Burn
Full Thickness Burn
-Most severe
-Epidermis and entire dermis is involved.
-Need debridement- physical removal of dead tissues.
Skin Grafts
-Provide temporary covering
-Allow for new cell colonization.
Types:
1. Plastic Skin- cheap and easy to make.
2. Farmed Skin- donated skin, probably postage stamp size. They feed the skin nutrients, care for it and it can grow up to size of a bathroom floor mat.
3. Homograft- Getting skin from a cadaver.
4. Autograft- donate skin to yourself.
Hemopoiesis
-In red bone marrow, hemocytoblasts produce RBC's (most abundant), WBCs and platelets.
-Hemopoiesis is controlled by hormones.
-Erythropoietin (kidneys)- hormone that controls RBCs.
-EPO- Synthetic form of erythropoietin. Also used by athletes to increase O2.
Skeletal System Functions
-Support
-Structure
-Movement with skeletal muscles
-Mineral storage (Ca+)
Perichondrium
A sheath of dense irregular connective tissue surrounding elastic or hyaline cartilage.
Reserve chondroblasts between the perichondrium and cartilage contribute to cartilage growth.
Collagen
The most abundant protein in the body, forming the fibers of many connective tissues.
-Tough, flexible, resists stretching.
-Ex. dermis, tendons, bone
Osteogenic Cells
Unipotent bone stem cells. They are immature bone cells that become osteoblasts.
Osteoblast
-Bone forming cells.
-Produce collagen.
-Collagen and Ca+ make up the matrix.
-Contain lacuna "lake"
Osteocyte
-Mature bone cells that maintain bones
-Monitor homeostatic conditions of bone density and blood concentrations of Ca+ and Phosphate ions.
-Found in tiny cavities called lacunae which are interconnected by slender channels called canaliculi.
Osteoclast
-Bone dissolving cells found on the bone surface.
-Formed by immature WBCs.
-Multi-nucleated, ruffled borders which contain enzymes and HCl.
Lacunae
Hollow cavities in osteons that contain osteocytes.
Trabecula
Bony plate structures that build spongy bone.
Osteon
The basic central structural unit of compact bone.
Haversian Canal
Contains a lot of nerves and blood vessels.
Lamellae
Layers of bone that form around the haversian canal.
Canaliculi
"Fingers" feeding into the haversian canal that carry O2, nutrients and metabolic waste.
Diaphysis
Middle portion of the bone.
Epiphyses
The ends of the long bone. Can be proximal or distal ends.
Metaphyses
Epiphyseal Disk
Growth Plate
A section of a bone that is comprised of cartilage until one reaches the age of about 25. It then becomes bone.
Articular Cartilage
The cartilage covering the epiphyses surfaces of a bone
Mesenchyme
Embryonic connective tissue.
Shapes of Bones
-Long- most common
-Flat- usually short (sternum)
-Irregular
Bone Tissue
-2 types of bone tissue and every bone has both types
-Contains cells, collagen, Ca+
Spongy Bone:
-Trabeculae
-Red marrow
-Light weight
Compact Bone:
-Osteons
-Strong and durable
Ossification
-Starts during fetal developmental period (after 2 mo in womb)
-Both types start with mesenchyme
-2 types
1. Intramembranous Ossification (flat bones)
2. Endochondral Ossification
Intramembranous Ossification
Flat bones only
1. Osteogenic cells invade mesenchyme.
-Then they mature to become osteoblasts.
-They begin to build spongy bone
2. Mesenchyme forms the periosteum
3. Periosteum deposits compact bone.
-The layer of spongy bone is called diploe.
Endochondral Ossification
(See Notes!)
Starts with mesenchyme and turns into "hyaline model"
1. Ca+ accumulates and kills chondrocytes.
2. Osteogenic cells invade
3. A thin layer of compact bone is deposited around the midline. This helps contain growth, aka bony collar.
4. Perichondrium becomes the periosteum
5. Osteogenic cells become osteoblasts. They use Ca+ to build spongy bone in the primary ossification center. (middle of bone)
6. Osteoclasts destroy spongy bone in primary ossification center.
7. Ca+ accumulates and kills chondrocytes.
8. osteogenic cells invade and become osteoblasts. Build spongy bone in secondary ossification center.
9. Nutrient arteries appear in ossification centers.
Hormones that Influence Bones
1. Estrogen/Testosterone- Stimulates osteoblasts, promote ossification, special influence in childhood thru adolescence.
2. hGH- human growth hormone- from anterior pituitary
3. IGF- insulin-like growth factor
4. Calcitonin
5. PTH- parathyroid hormone
Hormones that Influence Bones

IGF- insulin-like growth factor
-Produced in response to hGH
-In muscles, bone tissue, cartilage, liver.
Functions:
-Increase amino acid uptake by osteoblasts
-IGF decreases amino acid use for energy production
-Increases lipid use for energy production
Hormones that Influence Bones

Calcitonin
-Produced by "C-Cells" in the thyroid
-Released in response to high blood Ca+
-Calcitonin lowers blood Ca+
Functions:
-Stimulates osteoblasts
-Inhibits osteoclasts
-Decreases Ca+ reabsorption by the nephrons, essentially peeing it out.
Hormones that Influence Bones

PTH- parathyroid hormone
-Produced and released by the parathyroid glands.
-PTH is released in response to low blood Ca+
-PTH increases blood Ca+
Functions:
-Stimulates osteoclasts to release Ca+
-Increases absorption from the small intestines (need vitamin D)
-Increases reabsorption from the nephron, which prevents it from being peed out.
Fractures
General Terms:
-Displaced- bones are not lined up
-Non-diplaced- bones still aligned
-Open reduction- surgery used to fix a fx
-Closed reduction- non-surgical
Types:
-Open (compound)- skin is broken and bones are visible
-Greenstick- not a complete brake, more common in children because their bones are more flexible and not fully developed
-Communited- fracture with fragments
-Transverse- common in long bones, the break happens across osteons.
-Spiral- common in sports activity, serious force is required, often indicative of child abuse.
Spina Bifida
-When a spinous process fails to fuse.
-Folic acid is very important before and during pregnancy to prevent spina bifida.
Types:
-Spina Bifida Occulta- least severe, usually only one spot is abnormal.
-Spina Bifida Cystica- most severe, many vertebrae are involved.
Muscular System
Functions
-Movement w/ bones
-Tone and posture
-Communication
-Heat production
Types:
-Skeletal- voluntary, striated, z-lines, most abundant.
-Smooth- involuntary, non-striated
-Cardiac- least abundant, striated, involuntary*
Skeletal Muscles
2 Types of Cells: both types are found in all muscles
-Slow oxidative cells, SO fibers, Slow twitch fibers
-Fast glycolitic cells, FG fibers, Fast twitch fibers
Slow Oxidative Cells
SO Fibers
Slow Twitch Fibers
-Smaller than FG fibers
-Highly vascular
-Much myoglobin (stores O2)
-Darker than FG fibers
-Many mitochondria
-Use aerobic respiration to make ATP with O2
-High levels of fatigue resistance
Fast Glycolitic Cells
FG Fibers
Fast Twitch Fibers
-Longer than SO fibers
-Less vascular than SO fibers
-Less myoglobin than SO fibers
-Lighter in color than SO fibers
-Fewer mitochondria than SO fibers
-High glycogen content
- Anaerobic respiration to make ATP without O2
-Fatigue quickly
Smooth Muscle
-One type of cell
-Two types of tissues
-Contain dense bodies- anchoring/attachment proteins for actin
Types:
-Single Unit Smooth Muscle
-Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle
Single Unit Smooth Muscle
-Cells are arranged in large sheets or groups
-Found in blood vessels, digestive system and bronchioles
-All the cells are connected by gap junctions, which allows the cells to work together
Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle
-Cells arranged in strips
-No gap junctions
-Each cell has it's own motor neuron and can receive different messages
-Ex. pupil muscles and arrector pili muscles
Cardiac Muscles
-Autorhythmic at about 100 bpm
-Can stimulate themselves
-Cells can stimulate adjacent cells
-Cells held together by intercolated discs.
-Cardiac muscles cannot be tetanized
-Long refractory period
-Hypocalcemia causes a shorter refractory period causing tachycardia.
-Hypercalcemia causes a longer refractory period causing bradycardia
Tetnay
a smooth sustained contraction
The Brain
-Weighs 3lbs
-Uses 20% of all oxygen in your body. It does not store oxygen and it must receive a constant flow of it.
-After 4-5 minutes without oxygen, brain cells begin to die.
-It uses 20% of all your glucose. There is no glycogen in the brain so it must constantly be delivered.
Parkinson's Disease
When the brain is lacking in dopamine. Dopamine prevents signals from traveling when they shouldn’t. That is why the noticeable tremor is a sign in Parkinson's.
Blood Brain Barrier

BBB
Has protective capillaries:
-Tighter junctions so fewer things can get in and out.
-Covered with astrocytes
Keeps "harmful" substances out
-Ex. H+, urea, drugs
Cerebrospinal Fluid

(CSF)
-99% H20
-Every day approx. 500ml is made
-At any given time we have approx. 150 ml in our bodies
-BP driven
-Fluids are pushed into the superior sagital sinus, which runs along longitudinal fissure
Functions:
-Buoyancy- floats brain
-Protection- shock absorption
-Chemical Stability- carries nutrients and waste
-Produced by choroid plexus (capillaries)
They are:
-Highly permeable
-Found in brain ventricles
-Contain Fenestrae
Meninges
outside to inside:
Dura Mater- lots of collagen, tough, physical protection
-Subdural Space-
Arachnoid Mater-proteins form a web
-Subarachnoid Space- contains CSF
Pia Mater- delicate/nurturing layer, no protection or support, highly vascular
Cranial Nerve I
Olfactory

Sensory- smell
Cranial Nerve II
Optic

Sensory- vision
Cranial Nerve III
Oculomotor

Motor- eye movement
Cranial Nerve IV
Trochlear

Motor- eye movement
Cranial Nerve V
Trigeminal
Mixed

Motor-chewing speaking

Sensory- pain or damage in oral cavity
Cranial Nerve VI
Abducens

Motor- lateral eye movement
Cranial Nerve VII
Facial
Mixed

Motor-expression

Sensory- taste
Cranial Nerve VIII
Vestibulocochlear

Sensory-hearing
Cranial Nerve IX
Glossopharyngeal
Mixed

Motor-salivary gland control

Sensory-taste
Cranial Nerve X
Vagus
Mixed- focus on motor

Motor-controls visceral motor effectors
Cranial Nerve XI
Accessory

Motor-neck and shoulder movement
Cranial Nerve XII
Hypoglossal

Motor-tongue movement
Nerve
-A bundle of axons in the PNS.
Two Types:
Cranial or Spinal
-Motor Nerves-carry info out of CNS
-Sensory Nerves-carry info into CNS
-Mixed Nerves-carry info in both directions. Sensory is always incoming and motor is always outgoing
Autonomic Nervous System
-Motor division of the PNS
-Controls the visceral motor effectors (smooth muscles & glands)
2 Divisions:
a) Sympathetic- controls fight or flight
b) Parasympathetic- controls resting and digestive functions
-Both divisions rely on pathways with 2 neurons
Neurons in ANS
1st: Preganglionic Neuron- cell body is in the CNS

2nd: Postganglionic Neuron- cell body is in ganglion. It releases neurotransmitters on visceral motor effectors
Ganglion- cluster of cell bodies in PNS
Sympathetic Nervous System Anatomy
Preganglionic
-Cell body is in thoracic or lumbar region
-Short axon
-Uses ACh (Acetolcholine)
Postganglionic
-Long axon
-Uses NE (Norepinephrine)
Parasympathetic Nervous System Anatomy
Preganglionic
-Cell body is in the brain or sacral region
-Long axon
-Uses ACh (Acetolcholine)
Postganglionic
-Short axon
-Uses ACh (Acetolcholine)
Adrenergic
-Axons, synapses and receptors that use NE (Norepinephrine)
-Adrenergic receptors bind to NE
2 Categories based on chemistry:
-Alpha receptors
-Beta receptors
2 Functional Categories:
-Stimulatory
-Inhibitory
Cholinergic
-Axons, synapses and receptors that use ACh (Acetolcholine)
-Cholinergic receptors bind to ACh
2 Categories based on chemistry:
-Nicotinic
-Muscarinic
2 Functional Categories:
-Stimulatory
-Inhibitory
What is acetylcholinesterase?
How does it function?
Why is it important?
ACh is an enzyme that hydrolyzes acetylcholine, thus halting signal transmissions at cholinergic synapses. It is important because it relays or terminates nerve signals.
Lymphatic System Functions
1) Fluid Recovery
-collect fluid (mainly H2O) that has escaped from plasma
-Return fluid to plasma
2) Immunity- internal protection
3) Lipid absorption- takes place in a lacteal of vilus
Lymph Fluid Formation
-Driven by BP
-20L of fluid leaks out daily, 17L is returned almost immediately
-3L of fugitive fluid does not return
-Lymphatic capillaries collect interstitial fluid.
-Lymph capillaries have overlapping simple squamous cells that allow fluid to leak in.
-Lymph capillaries merge to form lymph vessels
-Lymph vessels have valves
-Lymph vessels carry lymph fluid into and out of lymph nodes
Lymph Nodes
-Has afferent and efferent vessels
-Collagen capsule
-Reticular fibers- trap harmful substances
-Traps microbes- bacteria, viruses and most parasites
Components of Lymph Fluid
Similar to blood plasma (H2O) but low in protein and can carry lymphocytes, macrophages, bacteria, viruses, cellular debris and hormones.
Leukocytes in Lymph Nodes
Macrophages
-Modified monocytes
-Engulf & destroy
B-Cells
-Modified lymphocytes
-Produce antibodies
T-Cells
-Modified lymphocytes
-Seek and destroy microbes
-Most agressive cells on our body's side
Final Lymphatic Vessels
Right lymphatic duct- returns fluid into the right subclavian vein. (about 1L per day)
-Collects from the right arm and the right side, midline of the body down to about the belly button
Thoracic Duct- returns fluid into the left subclavian vein.
-Collects from legs, left arm, and left half and trunk of body
Accessory Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils
-Similar to lymph nodes
-Reticular fibers
-T-Cells, B-Cells and macrophages
-No capsule
Three Stets:
a) lingual- back of the tongue
b) palatine- sides & roof
c) pharyngeal- back of nasal cavity
Accessory Lymphatic Organs
Spleen
-Filters blood and stabilizes blood volume
-Receives blood through the splenic artery
-Drains blood through splenic vein
-Considered "erythrocyte graveyard"
-Helps produce blood cells in infancy and in cases of extreme anemia in adults
-If damaged you can loose a lot of blood quickly
Two types of tissue:
a) Red pulp- stores platelets and blood
b) White pulp- T-Cells, B-Cells and macrophages
Accessory Lymphatic Organs
Thymus
-Large in newborns
-Small in adults
-Temporary endocrine gland that makes 2 hormones
-Thymosin
-Thymopoietin
-Those hormones help to create a virgin T-Cell pool
Resistance
Your ability to protect oneself from pathogens.
Two types:
-Non-specific
-Specific (immunity)
Pathogen
Microbes that cause disease
External Barriers
Keep pathogens out of internal fluids
Non-specific Mechanisms
Skin
-Stratum Corneum contains dead, flat cell that contain keratin
-Secrets defensins- proteins produced in your epidermis, cause cytolysis
-Acid Mantle- ultra thin layer of acid on the stratum corneum
Non-specific Mechanisms
Mucous Membranes
-Produce mucus
-Mucus mostly H2O and can trap particles
-Cilia can move mucus
Ciliary Escalator
-Mucus traps particles
-Cilia move particles at about an inch per hour
Non-specific Mechanisms
Urine
Flushes out potential invaders from outside
Non-specific Mechanisms
Antimicrobial Proteins
-Internal-found in internal body fluids
Ex. Interferons
-Work against viruses
-Made by viral host cells
-Interferons are sent to adjacent cells
-Interferons protect neighboring cells
Non-specific Mechanisms
Complement Proteins
-20 or more plasma proteins
-Can detect and bind to pathogens
Functions:
-Cytolysis
-Increase inflammation
-Opsonization- attract phagocytes
Opsonization
Compliment proteins mark invaders for destruction. It attracts phagocytes, which can engulf particles
Non-specific Mechanisms
Non-specific Leukocytes
Ex. Natural killer cells
-Modified lymphocytes
-Kill human cells- tumor cells, pre-tumor cells & viral host cells
-NK cells use perforin to cause cytolsis
Ex. Phagocytes
-Macrophages- biggest, most powerful, fights anything, modified monocyte
-Microphages- smallest, work against bacteria, modified neutrophils
Phagocytosis
3 Steps:
a) Chemotaxis
-phagocytes are attracted to chemicals
-Phagocytes then detect byproducts and move towards the source
b) Adherence- physical contact is made
c) Pseudopod Engulfment- use pseudopods to engulf pathogens
Inflammation
Symptoms:
-Heat
-Redness
-Swelling
-Pain
-Inflammation is a generic response to tissue damage
-Compliment proteins and histamine promote inflammation
Steps of Inflammation
a) Vasodilation & increased capillary permeability
b) Phagocyte migration- phagocytes arrive at the site. Microphages are there within minutes. Macrophages arrive within hours
c) Repair Phase- takes days, weeks, months, ext.
Immunity (specific resistance)
-Your ability to protect yourself from specific antigens.
Two Types
a) Cellular Immunity- T-Cells
b) Humoral Immunity- B-Cells
Antigens
-Combinations of amino acids and other molecules that are surface markers.
-AKA bells & whistles on viruses
Cellular Immunity
-T-Cells
-T-Cells must be exposed to antigens (sensitization)
-After exposure a group of generic cells from the virgin T-Cell pool become a specialized clone
-From the clone 4 specialized T-Cells will form:
a) Cytotoxic Killer T-Cells
b) Supressor T-Cells
c) Helper T-Cells
d) Memory T-Cells
Sensitization
Exposure to an antigen
Cytotoxic Killer T-Cells
-Use chemicals to attack pathogens
-Use perforin against bacteria
-Use lymphotoxin against viruses- it digests or breaks down viral genetic info
Supressor T-Cells
Work to keep killer T-Cells in control
Helper T-Cells
"CD4 lymphocytes"
-Stimulate more killer T-Cells
-Stimulate B-Cells
-Stimulate compliment proteins
Memory T-Cells
-Do not participate on 1st exposure
-Protect agains future exposures
-Shorten response time to 1-3 days
- Response time is about 7-14 days on 1st exposure
Humoral Immunity
Involves B-Cells
-Sensitization occurs and B-Cell clones are formed.
Two different types of specialized cells:
a) Plasma B-Cells- produce antibodies
b) Memory B-Cells
-Do not participate during first exposure
-Protect in future
-Shorten response time
Antibodies
-Plasma proteins
-Find and bind to antigens
Functions:
a) Neutralize
b) Compliment stimulation
c) Agglutination- clumping
Structure:
- Y structure
- Binding sites at the top two points (sticky)
-Diagonal sides are called light chains made up of amino acids
- Vertical portion is called heavy chains made up of amino acids
Types of Sensitization
-Artificial- exposure from medical professional
-Natural- exposed from contact in environment
Forms of Immunity
-Passive- you receive pre-constructed antibodies
-Active Immunity- your body makes the antibodies
Ductus Venosus
-Inside the fetus the umbilical vein takes a detour around the fetal liver which allows O2 and nutrients to bypass fetal liver
-The ductus venosus drains into the inferior vena cava
-After birth the ductus venosus becomes the ligamentum venosum
Foramen Ovale
-Opening in the fetal interatrial septum (in between the walls of the atria
-Allows about 1/3 of the blood in the right atrium to go directly to the left atrium
-After birth the foramen ovale becomes fossa ovalis
-When it fails to close after birth it is called patent foramen ovale (PFO)
-PFO is a newborn with a "hole in their heart"
Ductus Arteriosus
-Connects the fetal pulmonary trunk with the fetal aorta
-After birth it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
-If it fails to close after birth it is called patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)
-Fatal if not closed quickly
Structures with oxygenated blood
Pulmonary arteries and veins
Structures with deoxygenated blood
Superior & inferior vena cava
Portal Systems
Hepatic Portal System
-Circulatory pathways with 2 capillary networks.
-Ex. hepatic portal system- gives the liver 1st priority for absorbed nutrients
-Hepatic portal system consist of the splenic vein, mesenteric vein and the hepatic portal vein.
-Exits the liver to the hepatic vein and dumps into inferior vena cava
Urinary System
Function:
-Regulate fluid volume and solute concentrations
Structures:
-2 Kidneys
-2 Ureters
-1 Urinary bladder
-1 Urethra
Kidney Structure
-Renal capsule made of collagen
-Hilum (opening)
-Renal pelvis- cube shape surrounding hilum
-Renal cortex- first layer
-Renal medulla- in the middle of the kidney
Nephrons
-Functional units of kidneys, 1 million found in each kidney.
-The loop and collecting duct are in the medulla
Contains:
-Glomerular capsule
-Glomerulus
-Capillaries in glomerulus with fenestrae
-Proximal convoluted tube
-Descending limb and ascending limb of loop
-Distal convoluted tube
-Collecting duct
-Afferent & efferent arterioles
-Peritubular capillary network
Urine Formation
Step 1
Step 1
Filtration- (driven by BP) the movement of substances from the glomerulus in to the glomerular capsule
-Things that enter the capsule is considered filtrate
Filtrate
-Substances we keep- H2O, C6H12O6, Na+/Cl-
-Substances we loose- urea, ketones, H+
-Not in filtrate- blood cells and true proteins
Urine Formation
Step 2
Step 2
Reabsorption- movement of useful substances from the nephron into the peritubular capillaries
Ex. C6H12O6 is reabsorbed from the PCT by active transport
Ex. Na+ is reabsorbed by active transport from the loop
-Due to attraction, Cl- is reabsorbed with Na+ by co-transport, not requiring additional ATP
Ex. H2O is reabsorbed by osmosis from the loop
Urine Formation
Step 3
Step 3
Secretion- active transpor of substances from the peritubular capillaries into the DCT
Ex. K+, H+, hCG, drugs- antibiotics, THC
When would you expect sugar in urine?
-After a sugar meal
-After exercise
-If you have diabetes
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
A structure that functions in renal autoregulation. Consists of two components:
a) Juxtaglomerular cells
-Cells in the walls of the afferent arteriole
-Monitors BP in afferent arteriole
b) Macula Densa
-Cells in DCT that monitor Na+ in filtrate
Renin-Angiotenisin System
Hormonal system used to increase BP
-In response to low BP, juxtaglomerular cells release renin into blood
-In blood renin congerts angiotenisinogen into angiotenisin I
-In the lungs angiotenisin I is converted to angiotenisin II, which is cause by ACE or angiotenisin converting enzyme.
Angiotenisinogen
An inactive and natural plasma protein
Functions of Angiotenisin
-Stimulates thirst
-Causes selective vasoconstriction, which ups BP
-Increase aldosterone (posterior pituitary) which increases Na+/Cl- reabsorption and conserves H2O
-Increases ADH (antidiuretic hormone) (posterior pituitary) opens up aquaporins in the loop of henle
Fluids
-45-65% H2O- human composition
-Women tend to be lower in H2O concentration
-Newborns to a few years are 75% H2O
Two compartments:
a) Intracellular fluid (ICF)- 2/3
b) Extracellular fluid (ECF) 1/3
Hypertonic Solutions
A mixture of H2O & solutes more concentrated than normal blood.
Hypotonic Solutions
A mixture of H2O & solutes that will be less concentrated than normal blood
Isotonic Solutions
A mixture of H2O & solutes with the same concentration as normal blood. Because there is equal distribution, there is no H2O movement.
Solutes
Small particles (ions and small particles) that take up space in fluid.
Non-electrolytes
-Molecules that do not disassociate in H2O
-Formed by covalent bonds
Ex. C6H12O6, urea
Electrolytes
-Molecules that DO disassociate in H2O
-Formed from ionic bonds
-After disassociation, molecules give off ions + or -
Ex. NaCl + H2O= Na+ & Cl-
Three types of electrolytes
-Acids
-Bases
-Salts
Acids
"H+ donors"
-Electrolytes that give off H+ ions in solutions
-Strong Acids- give off all of H+ to solution
Ex. HCl
-Weak Acids- do not give off or release all of H+
Ex. H2CO3
Bases
"H+ acceptors"
-Electrolytes that give of OH- (hydroxyl group)
Ex. KOH (potassium hydroxide)
Salts
-Electrolytes that give off or release neither H+ nor OH-
Ex. NaCl
H2CO3
Carbonic Acid
HCO3-
Bicarbonate
Water Gain & Loss
Gain- daily
-About 2500ml total
-Drink- 1600ml
-Food- 700ml
-Metabolic H2O- 200
Loss- daily
-About 2500 total
-Urine-1500ml
-Skin- 500ml (400ml transpired & 100ml sweat)
-Respiration- 300ml from mucus membranes
-Feces- 200ml
Acidosis
-A drop in blood pH below 7.35
-resting potentials drop making the nervous system less active
Alkalosis
-An increase of pH above 7.45
-Raises resting potentials causing excess nervous system activity
pH Regulation
a) Skin- H+ is release
b) Kidneys- the prime mechanism to release H+
c) Respiration
Respiratory regulation of pH
-CO2 is released from tissues and enters blood
-Every CO2 molecule eventually results in a free H+
-Once CO2 reaches blood it is immediately converted:
CO2 +H20 -> H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3
-Once in the lungs the formula is reversed. CO2 enters aveoli to be breathed out.
CO2 + H2O <- H2CO3 <- HCO3- + H+
-If breathing slows or stops CO2 and H+ go up and pH goes down. Could lead to acidosis
-If breathing increases rapidly CO2 and H+ go down and pH goes up. Can cause alkalosis
Primary Nutrients
1) Carbohydrates
2) Lipids
3) Proteins
4) Minerals
5) Vitamins
6) Water
Eating Centers
2 centers located in the hypothalamus:
a) Feeding Center- in a cluster of nurons (nucleus)
-Low blood sugar is the primary drive for metabolic/bio hunger
b) Satiety Center-in a cluster of nurons (nucleus)
-Creates the feeling of "not hungry"
-High blood lipids
Glucose Metabolism
Sources:
-Diet
-Metabolic- we can make glucose from proteins and fats. This process is called gluconeogenisis
-Gluconeogenisis- "new sugar creation"
3 Fates of glucose
1) Convert to ATP
2) Store as glycogen (converted by insulin) in muscles and liver (up to 1LB
3) Convert to adipose tissue
Converting glucose into ATP
(See Notes)
1) Glycolysis- takes place in cytosol
2) Kreb Cycle- occurs in mitochondria
3) Electron Transport Chain- occurs in mitochondria
---Glycolysis
1 Glucose
-2 ATP
-2 NADH
2 Pyruvic Acids
-2 NADH
-2 CO2
AceCoA

---Kreb Cycle---
-2 ATP
-4 CO2
-6 NADH

---Electron Transport Chain---
10NADH
-34 ATP
-2 H2O
Lipid Metabolism
Uses: Cholesterol
- Cell membranes
-Steroids-> hormones
-HDL/LDL
Uses: Triglycerides
-Phospolipids
-Sebum
-Surfactant- fat in aveoli
-Eicosanoids-> hormones
Ex. Prostaglandins- responsible for inflammation and can cause contractions in the uterus
Fatty Acid Metabolism
Fatty acids can be converted into AceCoA.
-Ketones are produced
-H+ is released
Types of Proteins
Structural:
-Collagen
-Elastin
-Reticular fibers
-Keratin
Functional Proteins:
-Actin/myosin
-Plasma Proteins- fibrinogen, plasminogen, prothrombin, compliment proteins, angiotenisinogen, antibodies
-Enzymes- ATPase, lactase, pepsin, maltase, hemoglobin, myoglobin
Protein Metabolism
-Amino acids can be converted into AceCoA.
-The nitrogen group must be removed.
-Removing the nitrogen causes NH3 (ammonia) to be released but it is quickly converted to urea.
Major Solutes
Sodium or Natrium
-Na+ is the most abundant cation in ECF
Hyponatremia- low blood Na+
-Primary cause is drinking too much pure H2O
Hypernatremia- high blood Na+
-Causes: reduced H2O intake, excessive sweating, increased Na+ intake
-Problems- hypertension. Cells become dehydrated because water leaves the cell to dilute blood. This increases blood volume and raises BP
Major Solutes
Potassium
-Most abundant cation in ICF
Hypokalemia- low blood Ca+
-Causes- excessive sweating, vomiting, excess loss of feces, kidney failure
-This will hyperpolarize resting membranes and the nervous system becomes less active
Hyperkalemia- High blood K+
-Causes: burns, transfusions, lethal injections
-This hypopolarizes resting membranes and the nervous system becomes too active
-The SA node becomes excessively active- leads to death
Major Solutes
Calcium
-Most abundant ion in your body
Hypocalcemia- low blood Ca+
-Causes- malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, diarrhea, lactation, pregnancy
-Problems- increased fx rate, cramping which can lead to death, increases Na+ permeability at excitable membranes which results in over active nervous system
Hypercalcemia- high blood Ca+
-Causes- excess intake
-Problems- bone spurs, lack of muscle tone, kidney stones and decreases Na+ permeability at excitable membranes which causes a depressed nervous system
Examples of amino acids
Essential:
Valine
Lysine
Arginine
Leucine
Non-essential:
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Tryosine
Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport
Filtration
The process in which particles are driven through a selectively permeable membrane by water pressure.
-Occurs at glomeruli and choroid plexuses.
Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport
Simple Diffusion
Movement of particles from areas of high
concentration towards areas of low concentration.
Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport
Facilitated Diffusion
-Diffusion involving a membrane protein.
-No ATP required.
Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport
Osmosis
Movement of water from areas of high water
concentration towards areas of low water
concentration.
Active Mechanisms
Membrane Transport
Active Transport
Carrier mediated transport of a solute using ATP.
-Ex.Na+/K+ pumps in cell
membranes.
Heart Walls
-Outer layer- epicardium
-Middle layer- myocardium
-Inner layer- endocardium
Epicardium
-Serous membrane
-Simple squamous epithelium over a thin layer of aveolar tissue
-Some spots with adipose tissue
-Large coronary arteries
Endocardium
-Same makeup as epicardium but no adipose tissue
-Lines interior chambers and valves
-Serous membrane
-Simple squamous epithelium over a thin layer of aveolar tissue
-Some spots with adipose tissue
-Large coronary arteries
Myocardium
Cardiac muscle- does the work
Pericardium
-A double walled sac
-Outer wall- pericardial sac/parietal paricardium- tough, superficial, fibrous layers of dense irregular connective tissue
-Deeper layer- serous layer
-Inner layer- visceral pericardium
-Contains ligaments
-Between parietal & visceral membranes there is a space called the pericardial cavity- 5-30ml of pericardial fluid is exuded by serous layer which helps to lubricate and let the heart beat without friction
Heart Chambers
-L&R Atria- thin walled receiving chambers- weird flaps auricle
-L&R Ventricles- pumps that eject blood into arteries and keep it flowing around the body
Conduction System of the Heart
1) SA node fires "pacemaker"
2) Excitation spreads through the atrial myocardium
3) Av Node fires
4) Excitation spreads down the AV bundle
5) Purkinje fibers distribute excitation through ventricular myocardium
Echocardiogram
1) P wave- SA node depolarizes atria
2) PQ segment- travel time of signal from node to node
3) QRS complex- small downward deflection (Q), a sharp tall peak (R), and a final downward deflection (S).
-has both repolarizaton and depolarization
-the signal from the AV node spreads through the ventricular myocardium and then depolarizes the muscle
4) ST segment- ventricular systole. Ventricles contract and eject blood
5) T-Wave- ventricular repolarizaton