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248 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
Monosaccharides
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C6H12O6
Smallest Carb -Fructose -Galactose -Glucose |
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Disaccharides
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Pairs of monosaccharides
-Maltose -Sucrose -Lactose |
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Polysaccharides
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-Long chains of monosaccharides. (2-3,000)
-Formed by covalent bond -Glycogen- made only of glucose |
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Lipids
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Cholesterol
-Found in every cell in our body. -Used to make steroids. -Used to transport triglycerides. |
Triglycerides
-Glycogen with fatty acid tails composed of H and C. Carbon tend to form 4 covalent bonds. -Saturated fatty acids are full of H+. -Unsaturated fatty acids are not full of H+. |
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Amino Acids
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-Smallest building blocks of proteins.
-20 different kinds, 10 essential and 10 non-essential -Structure consists of nitrogen group, "R" or variable group and a carboxyl group. |
Essential Examples
-Leucine, Lysine, Valine. Non-essential Examples -Glycine, Proline, Serine. Single Example -Epinephrine |
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Peptides
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Short chains of amino acids (2-50)
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Example
-Oxytocin- hormone that causes smooth muscle in the uterus to contract. |
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Proteins
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Long chains of amino acids (over 50)
AKA- polypeptides |
Example
-Collagen |
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Genes
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Small regions on a chromosome that codes for amino acid sequences
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pH Scale
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Used to measure H+ concentrations.
-Blood pH is 7.35-7.45 -Acids have higher H+ concentrations and range from 0-7, with 0 being the strongest acid. |
-Alkaline solutions have lower H+ concentrations and range from 7-14, with 14 being the strongest base.
-The scale is inverse. |
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Genetic Info Basics
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-Most human cells have 46 pieces of DNA.
-23 differentiated types, with 2 copies of each type. -There are 22 autosomes and 1 hetereosome (#23) |
-Diploid or 2n- means 2 copies of a set of DNA (46).
-Haploid or 1n- means 1 set of chromosomes. -4n means that there is 4 copies or 93 pieces total. |
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Cell Cycle
Interphase |
-Interphase is the non-dividing part of a cells life.
-The part of the cell cycle between one miotic phase and the next, from the end of cytokenesis to the beginning of the next phase. |
G1
G0 S G2 |
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First Gap Phase
G1 Phase |
-Growth and normal metabolic roles.
-2n (46) This is an interval between cell division and DNA replication. |
-Synthesizes proteins
-Grows -Carries out preordained tasks for the body. -Accumulates materials needed to replicate DNA. |
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Gap Zero Phase
GO Phase |
-Cell lives but normal functions cease.
-Resting phase -When a cell cannot go into G0 phase, it is a sign of cancer. |
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Synthesis Phase
S Phase |
-2n-4n (46-92)
-Cell makes duplicate copies of its centrioles and all of its nuclear DNA. |
-Then 2 identical sets of DNA molecules are able to be divided between daughter cells.
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Second Gap Phase
G2 Phase |
-4n (92)
-Cellular content (other than DNA) is replicated. Ex.- centrosomes, microtubules. |
-Synthesizes enzymes that control cell division.
-Check DNA replications and repair errors. |
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Miotic Phase
M phase |
-Replicates nucleus
-Pinches in the middle to form furrow cleavage and eventually splits to from 2 daughter cells. |
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Mitosis
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Mitosis is used to make identical daughter cells.
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Functions:
-Forms embryonic cells -Growth of new cells and tissues -Replaces and repairs cells and tissues |
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Phospholipid
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-Hydrophilic phosphate head
-Hydrophobic fatty acid tails |
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Semipermeable
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Water, lipids and neutral molecules can pass but larger molecules and charged molecules or atoms cannot.
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Cytoplasm
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-The contents of a cell between its plasma membrane and it nuclear envelope, consists of:
cytosol, organelles, inclusions and the cytoskeleton. |
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Cytosol
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Fluid (H2O) inside the cell
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Nucleus
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-Surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
-Contains nucleolus which produces ribosomes. -Ribosomes contain DNA. |
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Ribosomes
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-Small granules of protein and RNA found in the nucleoli, cytosol, rough E.R and nuclear envelopes.
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-They read and code messages (RNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins specified by the code.
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Mitochondria
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-Organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP, metabolic H2O.
-CRISTAE |
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Golgi Complex
or Golgi Apparatus |
A small system of cisternae that synthesize carbohydrates and put finishing touches on protein and glycoprotein synthesis.
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Cisterns
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Fluid filled space or sac
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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"little network within the cytoplasm."
-It is a system of interconnected channels called cisterna, enclosed by a unit membrane. |
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Rough E.R.
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-Cisternae are parallel, flat sacs covered with ribosomes.
-Produces phospolipids and proteins of the plasma membrane. |
-Synthesizes proteins that are either packaged in other organelles or secreted from the cell.
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Smooth E.R.
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-Cisternae are more tubular, branch out more and lack ribosomes.
-It is a continuous network. |
-Synthesizes steroids and other lipids.
-Detoxifies alcohol and other drugs. -Manufactures all the membranes of the cell. |
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Cilia
AKA projections |
They are small, numerous and they move together to move mucus, forming a ciliary escalator.
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Found in the respiratory system and the female reproductive system.
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Leukocyte Types (Basic)
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Granulocyte:
Basophil Eosinophils Neutrophils |
Agranulocyte:
Monocytes Lymphocytes |
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Stages of Mitosis
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1. Prophase
2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase |
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Prophase
1st Stage of Mitosis |
-Nuclear envelope dissolves.
-Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. -Centrosomes migrate to the opposite ends of the cell by way of expanding microtubules. |
-Identical copies of DNA/chromosomes find each other and pair up.
-DNA is then pushed towards the middle of the cell. |
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Chromatin
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Loose uncoiled DNA
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Chromosomes
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Tightly coiled DNA
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Metaphase
2nd Stage of Mitosis |
DNA is lined up on the midline of the cell
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Anaphase
3rd Stange of Mitosis |
Microtubules pull centromeres apart
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Telophase
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-"New" nuclear envelope forms
-Cleavage furrow forms -Cell divides aka cytokenisis |
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Centromere
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Protein that holds copies of DNA together.
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Chromatid
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one copy of a duplicated chromosome.
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Sister Chromatid
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Identical copies of DNA held together by a centromere.
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Benign
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-Cells that cannot spread to new locations.
-Sometimes they are encapsulated by proteins |
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Malignant
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Cells that have the ability to spread
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Non-disjunction
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The failure of one pair of DNA to split during meiosis 1
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Proto-oncogene
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-Normal genes that code for growth factors.
-If they become mutated they become oncogenes, which cause cancer. |
Ex. Growth hormone- can make things bigger and can make more numbers of a certain thing.
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Tumor Suppressor Gene
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-Produces proteins that regulate the cell cycle
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P53 Gene
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-Found on chromosome 17.
-You nee BOTH copies of this. -Common CA's linked with this gene; prostate, colon and breast. |
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Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)
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-Kills primitive tumors.
-Produced by leukocytes and chondrocytes. |
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Meiosis
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-Sex cell production.
-This process is used to form haploid gametes. -Meiosis I is also referred to as reduction division |
-In the female system the 2nd oocyte is ovulated and normally dies, unless met by a sperm.
-If it becomes fertilized it is referred to as a zygote |
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Gametes
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Sperm or egg/ovum
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Causes of CA
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-Mutations- changes in genes
-Carcinogens- mutation causing agents: 1. Chemicals 2. Radiation 3. Viruses |
Chemicals
-Cig Smoke, lead, mercury, asbestos. Radiation -U.V. Viruses -not living, need a host cell |
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Skin Functions
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-Protection
-Communication -Excretion (H+, Na+, urea) -Temperature regulation -Vitamin D production |
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Vitamin D Production
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-Skin will synthesize the 1st form of vitamin D.
-To do this you need cholesterol and UV rays. -In the dermis cholesterol is in blood and is converted into vitamin D3. |
-It then travels to the liver and is turned into calcidiol.
-It then travels to the kidney and is converted into calcitriol, most bio available form. |
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Skin Structure
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Top to bottom:
Epidermis -Stratum Corneum -Stratum Lucidum -Stratum Granulosum -Stratum Spinosum -Stratum Basale Dermis Hypodermis (not a primary layer) |
Epidermis:
-Stratified squamous tissue -Avascular |
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Epidermis Details
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Top to Bottom:
1. Stratum Corneum- dead cells, contains keratin, the oldest cells. 2. Stratum Lucidum 3. Stratum Granulosum 4. Stratum Spinosum |
5. Stratum Basale:
-New skin cells form here -Contains keratinocytes, stem cells (unipotent) -Melanocytes are found here. |
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Dermis Details
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-Highly vascular
-Nervous tissue -Smooth muscle (found in vessels and arrector pili) -Connective tissue (lots of collagen) |
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Hypodermis Details
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-AKA subq or subcutaneous
-Large vessels -Adipose tissue and subcutaneous fat |
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Carcinoma
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Cancer arising in epithelial tissue (about 90% of cancer).
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Sarcoma
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Cancer arising in muscle or connective tissue.
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Melanoma
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Cancer of melanocytes, highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy.
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Lymphoma
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Any tumor of the lymphoid tissue, can be benign or malignant.
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Hodgkins Disease
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Cancer of lymph nodes, characterized by large cells of unknown origin called Reed-Sternberg cells, treat with radiation and has high cure rate.
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Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
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Includes all lymph cancers except Hodgkin’s, several different sub-grades exist
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Retinoblastoma
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Cancer of the eyes in infants caused when both copies of the tumor suppressor genes (Rb) are damaged
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Leukemia
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Cancer of hemopoietic tissues, which results in abn number of leukocytes.
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Hemostasis
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-Blood loss prevention
-3 Steps: 1. Vascular Spasm- almost instant 2. Platelet Plug Formation- takes minutes 3. Coagulation |
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Hemostasis
Blood Loss Prevention Step 1 |
Vascular Spasm:
-Vasoconstriction of the damaged vessel. -This is dependent on smooth muscle. -It is easier to vasoconstrict a jagged cut than a clean cut due to extra surface area. -Capillaries never vasoconstrict. |
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Hemostasis
Blood Loss Prevention Step 2 |
Platelet Plug Formation:
-Platelets will adhere to exposed collagen. -After platelets stick to collagen they "degranulate" thromboxane A, which causes platelets to stick together. |
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Hemostasis
Blood Loss Prevention Step 3 |
Coagulation:
-Formation of a clot or thrombus. Must have: -Normal blood Ca+ -Vitamin K -Clotting factors |
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Platelets
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-fragments from megakaryocytes
-AKA thrombocytes -Platelets can adhere to collagen and cholesterol |
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Thromboxane A
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Released by platelets and cause platelets to stick to each other.
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Embolus
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Traveling blood clot
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Clotting Factors
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Proteins involved in clotting.
-Genes for clotting proteins are only on the X chromosome. |
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Vitamin K
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Made by bacteria in the large intestine.
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Steps in Coagulation
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1. Damage
2. Thromboplastin release from para-vascular cells. 3. Thromboplastin is converted into prothrombin activator. |
4. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin into thrombin.
5. Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin threads. |
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Thromboplastin
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Clotting factor
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Prothrombin
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-Clotting factor
-A normal component of plasma -Inactive |
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Fibrinogen
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-Clotting factor
-Plasma protein -Inactive |
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Clots
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Contains:
-Fibrin- could not happen w/o -RBCs -WBCs -Platelets -Plasminogen |
Retraction:
-Shrinking of a clot. -Platelets use pseudopods to pull on fibrin. |
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Homeostasis
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The ability to maintain a stable internal environment. Being ill is when we are unable to maintain homeostasis.
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-Positive Feedback- processes that become exaggerated, they get bigger and bigger.
-Negative Feedback- a loop that helps to maintain homeostasis. |
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Prothrombin Activator
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Converts or activates prothrombin into thrombin.
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Thrombin
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Active form of prothrombin.
-It converts or activates fibrinogen into fibrin. |
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Fybrinolysis
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Refers to the normal breakdown of clots. After several days plasminogen in converted into plasmin, which destroys fibrin.
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Plasmin
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A fibrin dissolving enzyme that breaks up a clot.
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Anticoagulants
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Prevent or interfere with clotting.
-Coumadin/Warfarin- prevents vitamin K synthesis. Systematic approach |
Heparin- prevents prothrombin from becoming thrombin.
-used in surgery -more localized -used in needles |
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Burns
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Causes:
Heat, Electricity, Chemical, Radiation, Cold Risks: -Infection -Sepsis -Dehydration |
Classifications (least severe to worst)
1. 1st degree 2. 2nd degree 3. 3rd degree |
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First Degree Burn
Superficial Partial Thickness Burn |
-Least severe
-Damage only to the epidermis |
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Second Degree Burn
Deep Partial Thickness Burn |
Epidermis and a portion of the dermis will be damaged.
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Third Degree Burn
Full Thickness Burn |
-Most severe
-Epidermis and entire dermis is involved. -Need debridement- physical removal of dead tissues. |
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Skin Grafts
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-Provide temporary covering
-Allow for new cell colonization. Types: 1. Plastic Skin- cheap and easy to make. 2. Farmed Skin- donated skin, probably postage stamp size. They feed the skin nutrients, care for it and it can grow up to size of a bathroom floor mat. |
3. Homograft- Getting skin from a cadaver.
4. Autograft- donate skin to yourself. |
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Hemopoiesis
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-In red bone marrow, hemocytoblasts produce RBC's (most abundant), WBCs and platelets.
-Hemopoiesis is controlled by hormones. |
-Erythropoietin (kidneys)- hormone that controls RBCs.
-EPO- Synthetic form of erythropoietin. Also used by athletes to increase O2. |
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Skeletal System Functions
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-Support
-Structure -Movement with skeletal muscles -Mineral storage (Ca+) |
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Perichondrium
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A sheath of dense irregular connective tissue surrounding elastic or hyaline cartilage.
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Reserve chondroblasts between the perichondrium and cartilage contribute to cartilage growth.
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Collagen
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The most abundant protein in the body, forming the fibers of many connective tissues.
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-Tough, flexible, resists stretching.
-Ex. dermis, tendons, bone |
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Osteogenic Cells
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Unipotent bone stem cells. They are immature bone cells that become osteoblasts.
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Osteoblast
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-Bone forming cells.
-Produce collagen. -Collagen and Ca+ make up the matrix. -Contain lacuna "lake" |
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Osteocyte
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-Mature bone cells that maintain bones
-Monitor homeostatic conditions of bone density and blood concentrations of Ca+ and Phosphate ions. |
-Found in tiny cavities called lacunae which are interconnected by slender channels called canaliculi.
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Osteoclast
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-Bone dissolving cells found on the bone surface.
-Formed by immature WBCs. -Multi-nucleated, ruffled borders which contain enzymes and HCl. |
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Lacunae
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Hollow cavities in osteons that contain osteocytes.
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Trabecula
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Bony plate structures that build spongy bone.
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Osteon
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The basic central structural unit of compact bone.
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Haversian Canal
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Contains a lot of nerves and blood vessels.
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Lamellae
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Layers of bone that form around the haversian canal.
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Canaliculi
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"Fingers" feeding into the haversian canal that carry O2, nutrients and metabolic waste.
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Diaphysis
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Middle portion of the bone.
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Epiphyses
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The ends of the long bone. Can be proximal or distal ends.
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Metaphyses
Epiphyseal Disk Growth Plate |
A section of a bone that is comprised of cartilage until one reaches the age of about 25. It then becomes bone.
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Articular Cartilage
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The cartilage covering the epiphyses surfaces of a bone
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Mesenchyme
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Embryonic connective tissue.
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Shapes of Bones
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-Long- most common
-Flat- usually short (sternum) -Irregular |
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Bone Tissue
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-2 types of bone tissue and every bone has both types
-Contains cells, collagen, Ca+ Spongy Bone: -Trabeculae -Red marrow -Light weight |
Compact Bone:
-Osteons -Strong and durable |
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Ossification
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-Starts during fetal developmental period (after 2 mo in womb)
-Both types start with mesenchyme -2 types 1. Intramembranous Ossification (flat bones) 2. Endochondral Ossification |
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Intramembranous Ossification
Flat bones only |
1. Osteogenic cells invade mesenchyme.
-Then they mature to become osteoblasts. -They begin to build spongy bone |
2. Mesenchyme forms the periosteum
3. Periosteum deposits compact bone. -The layer of spongy bone is called diploe. |
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Endochondral Ossification
(See Notes!) |
Starts with mesenchyme and turns into "hyaline model"
1. Ca+ accumulates and kills chondrocytes. 2. Osteogenic cells invade 3. A thin layer of compact bone is deposited around the midline. This helps contain growth, aka bony collar. 4. Perichondrium becomes the periosteum 5. Osteogenic cells become osteoblasts. They use Ca+ to build spongy bone in the primary ossification center. (middle of bone) |
6. Osteoclasts destroy spongy bone in primary ossification center.
7. Ca+ accumulates and kills chondrocytes. 8. osteogenic cells invade and become osteoblasts. Build spongy bone in secondary ossification center. 9. Nutrient arteries appear in ossification centers. |
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Hormones that Influence Bones
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1. Estrogen/Testosterone- Stimulates osteoblasts, promote ossification, special influence in childhood thru adolescence.
2. hGH- human growth hormone- from anterior pituitary |
3. IGF- insulin-like growth factor
4. Calcitonin 5. PTH- parathyroid hormone |
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Hormones that Influence Bones
IGF- insulin-like growth factor |
-Produced in response to hGH
-In muscles, bone tissue, cartilage, liver. |
Functions:
-Increase amino acid uptake by osteoblasts -IGF decreases amino acid use for energy production -Increases lipid use for energy production |
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Hormones that Influence Bones
Calcitonin |
-Produced by "C-Cells" in the thyroid
-Released in response to high blood Ca+ -Calcitonin lowers blood Ca+ |
Functions:
-Stimulates osteoblasts -Inhibits osteoclasts -Decreases Ca+ reabsorption by the nephrons, essentially peeing it out. |
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Hormones that Influence Bones
PTH- parathyroid hormone |
-Produced and released by the parathyroid glands.
-PTH is released in response to low blood Ca+ -PTH increases blood Ca+ |
Functions:
-Stimulates osteoclasts to release Ca+ -Increases absorption from the small intestines (need vitamin D) -Increases reabsorption from the nephron, which prevents it from being peed out. |
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Fractures
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General Terms:
-Displaced- bones are not lined up -Non-diplaced- bones still aligned -Open reduction- surgery used to fix a fx -Closed reduction- non-surgical |
Types:
-Open (compound)- skin is broken and bones are visible -Greenstick- not a complete brake, more common in children because their bones are more flexible and not fully developed -Communited- fracture with fragments -Transverse- common in long bones, the break happens across osteons. -Spiral- common in sports activity, serious force is required, often indicative of child abuse. |
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Spina Bifida
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-When a spinous process fails to fuse.
-Folic acid is very important before and during pregnancy to prevent spina bifida. |
Types:
-Spina Bifida Occulta- least severe, usually only one spot is abnormal. -Spina Bifida Cystica- most severe, many vertebrae are involved. |
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Muscular System
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Functions
-Movement w/ bones -Tone and posture -Communication -Heat production |
Types:
-Skeletal- voluntary, striated, z-lines, most abundant. -Smooth- involuntary, non-striated -Cardiac- least abundant, striated, involuntary* |
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Skeletal Muscles
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2 Types of Cells: both types are found in all muscles
-Slow oxidative cells, SO fibers, Slow twitch fibers -Fast glycolitic cells, FG fibers, Fast twitch fibers |
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Slow Oxidative Cells
SO Fibers Slow Twitch Fibers |
-Smaller than FG fibers
-Highly vascular -Much myoglobin (stores O2) -Darker than FG fibers -Many mitochondria -Use aerobic respiration to make ATP with O2 -High levels of fatigue resistance |
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Fast Glycolitic Cells
FG Fibers Fast Twitch Fibers |
-Longer than SO fibers
-Less vascular than SO fibers -Less myoglobin than SO fibers -Lighter in color than SO fibers -Fewer mitochondria than SO fibers -High glycogen content - Anaerobic respiration to make ATP without O2 -Fatigue quickly |
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Smooth Muscle
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-One type of cell
-Two types of tissues -Contain dense bodies- anchoring/attachment proteins for actin |
Types:
-Single Unit Smooth Muscle -Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle |
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Single Unit Smooth Muscle
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-Cells are arranged in large sheets or groups
-Found in blood vessels, digestive system and bronchioles -All the cells are connected by gap junctions, which allows the cells to work together |
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Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle
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-Cells arranged in strips
-No gap junctions -Each cell has it's own motor neuron and can receive different messages -Ex. pupil muscles and arrector pili muscles |
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Cardiac Muscles
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-Autorhythmic at about 100 bpm
-Can stimulate themselves -Cells can stimulate adjacent cells -Cells held together by intercolated discs. -Cardiac muscles cannot be tetanized |
-Long refractory period
-Hypocalcemia causes a shorter refractory period causing tachycardia. -Hypercalcemia causes a longer refractory period causing bradycardia |
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Tetnay
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a smooth sustained contraction
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The Brain
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-Weighs 3lbs
-Uses 20% of all oxygen in your body. It does not store oxygen and it must receive a constant flow of it. -After 4-5 minutes without oxygen, brain cells begin to die. -It uses 20% of all your glucose. There is no glycogen in the brain so it must constantly be delivered. |
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Parkinson's Disease
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When the brain is lacking in dopamine. Dopamine prevents signals from traveling when they shouldn’t. That is why the noticeable tremor is a sign in Parkinson's.
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Blood Brain Barrier
BBB |
Has protective capillaries:
-Tighter junctions so fewer things can get in and out. -Covered with astrocytes |
Keeps "harmful" substances out
-Ex. H+, urea, drugs |
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
(CSF) |
-99% H20
-Every day approx. 500ml is made -At any given time we have approx. 150 ml in our bodies -BP driven -Fluids are pushed into the superior sagital sinus, which runs along longitudinal fissure Functions: -Buoyancy- floats brain -Protection- shock absorption -Chemical Stability- carries nutrients and waste |
-Produced by choroid plexus (capillaries)
They are: -Highly permeable -Found in brain ventricles -Contain Fenestrae |
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Meninges
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outside to inside:
Dura Mater- lots of collagen, tough, physical protection -Subdural Space- Arachnoid Mater-proteins form a web -Subarachnoid Space- contains CSF Pia Mater- delicate/nurturing layer, no protection or support, highly vascular |
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Cranial Nerve I
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Olfactory
Sensory- smell |
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Cranial Nerve II
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Optic
Sensory- vision |
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Cranial Nerve III
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Oculomotor
Motor- eye movement |
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Cranial Nerve IV
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Trochlear
Motor- eye movement |
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Cranial Nerve V
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Trigeminal
Mixed Motor-chewing speaking Sensory- pain or damage in oral cavity |
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Cranial Nerve VI
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Abducens
Motor- lateral eye movement |
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Cranial Nerve VII
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Facial
Mixed Motor-expression Sensory- taste |
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Cranial Nerve VIII
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Vestibulocochlear
Sensory-hearing |
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Cranial Nerve IX
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Glossopharyngeal
Mixed Motor-salivary gland control Sensory-taste |
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Cranial Nerve X
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Vagus
Mixed- focus on motor Motor-controls visceral motor effectors |
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Cranial Nerve XI
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Accessory
Motor-neck and shoulder movement |
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Cranial Nerve XII
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Hypoglossal
Motor-tongue movement |
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Nerve
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-A bundle of axons in the PNS.
Two Types: Cranial or Spinal |
-Motor Nerves-carry info out of CNS
-Sensory Nerves-carry info into CNS -Mixed Nerves-carry info in both directions. Sensory is always incoming and motor is always outgoing |
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Autonomic Nervous System
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-Motor division of the PNS
-Controls the visceral motor effectors (smooth muscles & glands) |
2 Divisions:
a) Sympathetic- controls fight or flight b) Parasympathetic- controls resting and digestive functions -Both divisions rely on pathways with 2 neurons |
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Neurons in ANS
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1st: Preganglionic Neuron- cell body is in the CNS
2nd: Postganglionic Neuron- cell body is in ganglion. It releases neurotransmitters on visceral motor effectors |
Ganglion- cluster of cell bodies in PNS
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Sympathetic Nervous System Anatomy
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Preganglionic
-Cell body is in thoracic or lumbar region -Short axon -Uses ACh (Acetolcholine) |
Postganglionic
-Long axon -Uses NE (Norepinephrine) |
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Parasympathetic Nervous System Anatomy
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Preganglionic
-Cell body is in the brain or sacral region -Long axon -Uses ACh (Acetolcholine) |
Postganglionic
-Short axon -Uses ACh (Acetolcholine) |
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Adrenergic
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-Axons, synapses and receptors that use NE (Norepinephrine)
-Adrenergic receptors bind to NE |
2 Categories based on chemistry:
-Alpha receptors -Beta receptors 2 Functional Categories: -Stimulatory -Inhibitory |
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Cholinergic
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-Axons, synapses and receptors that use ACh (Acetolcholine)
-Cholinergic receptors bind to ACh |
2 Categories based on chemistry:
-Nicotinic -Muscarinic 2 Functional Categories: -Stimulatory -Inhibitory |
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What is acetylcholinesterase?
How does it function? Why is it important? |
ACh is an enzyme that hydrolyzes acetylcholine, thus halting signal transmissions at cholinergic synapses. It is important because it relays or terminates nerve signals.
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Lymphatic System Functions
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1) Fluid Recovery
-collect fluid (mainly H2O) that has escaped from plasma -Return fluid to plasma 2) Immunity- internal protection 3) Lipid absorption- takes place in a lacteal of vilus |
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Lymph Fluid Formation
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-Driven by BP
-20L of fluid leaks out daily, 17L is returned almost immediately -3L of fugitive fluid does not return -Lymphatic capillaries collect interstitial fluid. |
-Lymph capillaries have overlapping simple squamous cells that allow fluid to leak in.
-Lymph capillaries merge to form lymph vessels -Lymph vessels have valves -Lymph vessels carry lymph fluid into and out of lymph nodes |
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Lymph Nodes
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-Has afferent and efferent vessels
-Collagen capsule -Reticular fibers- trap harmful substances -Traps microbes- bacteria, viruses and most parasites |
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Components of Lymph Fluid
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Similar to blood plasma (H2O) but low in protein and can carry lymphocytes, macrophages, bacteria, viruses, cellular debris and hormones.
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Leukocytes in Lymph Nodes
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Macrophages
-Modified monocytes -Engulf & destroy B-Cells -Modified lymphocytes -Produce antibodies |
T-Cells
-Modified lymphocytes -Seek and destroy microbes -Most agressive cells on our body's side |
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Final Lymphatic Vessels
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Right lymphatic duct- returns fluid into the right subclavian vein. (about 1L per day)
-Collects from the right arm and the right side, midline of the body down to about the belly button |
Thoracic Duct- returns fluid into the left subclavian vein.
-Collects from legs, left arm, and left half and trunk of body |
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Accessory Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils |
-Similar to lymph nodes
-Reticular fibers -T-Cells, B-Cells and macrophages -No capsule |
Three Stets:
a) lingual- back of the tongue b) palatine- sides & roof c) pharyngeal- back of nasal cavity |
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Accessory Lymphatic Organs
Spleen |
-Filters blood and stabilizes blood volume
-Receives blood through the splenic artery -Drains blood through splenic vein -Considered "erythrocyte graveyard" -Helps produce blood cells in infancy and in cases of extreme anemia in adults -If damaged you can loose a lot of blood quickly |
Two types of tissue:
a) Red pulp- stores platelets and blood b) White pulp- T-Cells, B-Cells and macrophages |
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Accessory Lymphatic Organs
Thymus |
-Large in newborns
-Small in adults -Temporary endocrine gland that makes 2 hormones -Thymosin -Thymopoietin |
-Those hormones help to create a virgin T-Cell pool
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Resistance
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Your ability to protect oneself from pathogens.
Two types: -Non-specific -Specific (immunity) |
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Pathogen
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Microbes that cause disease
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External Barriers
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Keep pathogens out of internal fluids
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Non-specific Mechanisms
Skin |
-Stratum Corneum contains dead, flat cell that contain keratin
-Secrets defensins- proteins produced in your epidermis, cause cytolysis -Acid Mantle- ultra thin layer of acid on the stratum corneum |
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Non-specific Mechanisms
Mucous Membranes |
-Produce mucus
-Mucus mostly H2O and can trap particles -Cilia can move mucus |
Ciliary Escalator
-Mucus traps particles -Cilia move particles at about an inch per hour |
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Non-specific Mechanisms
Urine |
Flushes out potential invaders from outside
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Non-specific Mechanisms
Antimicrobial Proteins |
-Internal-found in internal body fluids
Ex. Interferons -Work against viruses -Made by viral host cells -Interferons are sent to adjacent cells -Interferons protect neighboring cells |
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Non-specific Mechanisms
Complement Proteins |
-20 or more plasma proteins
-Can detect and bind to pathogens |
Functions:
-Cytolysis -Increase inflammation -Opsonization- attract phagocytes |
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Opsonization
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Compliment proteins mark invaders for destruction. It attracts phagocytes, which can engulf particles
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Non-specific Mechanisms
Non-specific Leukocytes |
Ex. Natural killer cells
-Modified lymphocytes -Kill human cells- tumor cells, pre-tumor cells & viral host cells -NK cells use perforin to cause cytolsis |
Ex. Phagocytes
-Macrophages- biggest, most powerful, fights anything, modified monocyte -Microphages- smallest, work against bacteria, modified neutrophils |
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Phagocytosis
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3 Steps:
a) Chemotaxis -phagocytes are attracted to chemicals -Phagocytes then detect byproducts and move towards the source |
b) Adherence- physical contact is made
c) Pseudopod Engulfment- use pseudopods to engulf pathogens |
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Inflammation
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Symptoms:
-Heat -Redness -Swelling -Pain |
-Inflammation is a generic response to tissue damage
-Compliment proteins and histamine promote inflammation |
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Steps of Inflammation
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a) Vasodilation & increased capillary permeability
b) Phagocyte migration- phagocytes arrive at the site. Microphages are there within minutes. Macrophages arrive within hours |
c) Repair Phase- takes days, weeks, months, ext.
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Immunity (specific resistance)
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-Your ability to protect yourself from specific antigens.
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Two Types
a) Cellular Immunity- T-Cells b) Humoral Immunity- B-Cells |
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Antigens
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-Combinations of amino acids and other molecules that are surface markers.
-AKA bells & whistles on viruses |
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Cellular Immunity
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-T-Cells
-T-Cells must be exposed to antigens (sensitization) -After exposure a group of generic cells from the virgin T-Cell pool become a specialized clone |
-From the clone 4 specialized T-Cells will form:
a) Cytotoxic Killer T-Cells b) Supressor T-Cells c) Helper T-Cells d) Memory T-Cells |
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Sensitization
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Exposure to an antigen
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Cytotoxic Killer T-Cells
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-Use chemicals to attack pathogens
-Use perforin against bacteria -Use lymphotoxin against viruses- it digests or breaks down viral genetic info |
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Supressor T-Cells
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Work to keep killer T-Cells in control
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Helper T-Cells
"CD4 lymphocytes" |
-Stimulate more killer T-Cells
-Stimulate B-Cells -Stimulate compliment proteins |
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Memory T-Cells
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-Do not participate on 1st exposure
-Protect agains future exposures -Shorten response time to 1-3 days - Response time is about 7-14 days on 1st exposure |
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Humoral Immunity
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Involves B-Cells
-Sensitization occurs and B-Cell clones are formed. |
Two different types of specialized cells:
a) Plasma B-Cells- produce antibodies b) Memory B-Cells -Do not participate during first exposure -Protect in future -Shorten response time |
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Antibodies
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-Plasma proteins
-Find and bind to antigens Functions: a) Neutralize b) Compliment stimulation c) Agglutination- clumping |
Structure:
- Y structure - Binding sites at the top two points (sticky) -Diagonal sides are called light chains made up of amino acids - Vertical portion is called heavy chains made up of amino acids |
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Types of Sensitization
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-Artificial- exposure from medical professional
-Natural- exposed from contact in environment |
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Forms of Immunity
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-Passive- you receive pre-constructed antibodies
-Active Immunity- your body makes the antibodies |
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Ductus Venosus
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-Inside the fetus the umbilical vein takes a detour around the fetal liver which allows O2 and nutrients to bypass fetal liver
-The ductus venosus drains into the inferior vena cava |
-After birth the ductus venosus becomes the ligamentum venosum
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Foramen Ovale
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-Opening in the fetal interatrial septum (in between the walls of the atria
-Allows about 1/3 of the blood in the right atrium to go directly to the left atrium |
-After birth the foramen ovale becomes fossa ovalis
-When it fails to close after birth it is called patent foramen ovale (PFO) -PFO is a newborn with a "hole in their heart" |
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Ductus Arteriosus
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-Connects the fetal pulmonary trunk with the fetal aorta
-After birth it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum |
-If it fails to close after birth it is called patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)
-Fatal if not closed quickly |
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Structures with oxygenated blood
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Pulmonary arteries and veins
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Structures with deoxygenated blood
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Superior & inferior vena cava
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Portal Systems
Hepatic Portal System |
-Circulatory pathways with 2 capillary networks.
-Ex. hepatic portal system- gives the liver 1st priority for absorbed nutrients |
-Hepatic portal system consist of the splenic vein, mesenteric vein and the hepatic portal vein.
-Exits the liver to the hepatic vein and dumps into inferior vena cava |
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Urinary System
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Function:
-Regulate fluid volume and solute concentrations |
Structures:
-2 Kidneys -2 Ureters -1 Urinary bladder -1 Urethra |
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Kidney Structure
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-Renal capsule made of collagen
-Hilum (opening) -Renal pelvis- cube shape surrounding hilum -Renal cortex- first layer -Renal medulla- in the middle of the kidney |
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Nephrons
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-Functional units of kidneys, 1 million found in each kidney.
-The loop and collecting duct are in the medulla |
Contains:
-Glomerular capsule -Glomerulus -Capillaries in glomerulus with fenestrae -Proximal convoluted tube -Descending limb and ascending limb of loop -Distal convoluted tube -Collecting duct -Afferent & efferent arterioles -Peritubular capillary network |
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Urine Formation
Step 1 |
Step 1
Filtration- (driven by BP) the movement of substances from the glomerulus in to the glomerular capsule -Things that enter the capsule is considered filtrate |
Filtrate
-Substances we keep- H2O, C6H12O6, Na+/Cl- -Substances we loose- urea, ketones, H+ -Not in filtrate- blood cells and true proteins |
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Urine Formation
Step 2 |
Step 2
Reabsorption- movement of useful substances from the nephron into the peritubular capillaries Ex. C6H12O6 is reabsorbed from the PCT by active transport |
Ex. Na+ is reabsorbed by active transport from the loop
-Due to attraction, Cl- is reabsorbed with Na+ by co-transport, not requiring additional ATP Ex. H2O is reabsorbed by osmosis from the loop |
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Urine Formation
Step 3 |
Step 3
Secretion- active transpor of substances from the peritubular capillaries into the DCT |
Ex. K+, H+, hCG, drugs- antibiotics, THC
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When would you expect sugar in urine?
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-After a sugar meal
-After exercise -If you have diabetes |
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Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
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A structure that functions in renal autoregulation. Consists of two components:
a) Juxtaglomerular cells -Cells in the walls of the afferent arteriole -Monitors BP in afferent arteriole |
b) Macula Densa
-Cells in DCT that monitor Na+ in filtrate |
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Renin-Angiotenisin System
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Hormonal system used to increase BP
-In response to low BP, juxtaglomerular cells release renin into blood -In blood renin congerts angiotenisinogen into angiotenisin I |
-In the lungs angiotenisin I is converted to angiotenisin II, which is cause by ACE or angiotenisin converting enzyme.
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Angiotenisinogen
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An inactive and natural plasma protein
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Functions of Angiotenisin
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-Stimulates thirst
-Causes selective vasoconstriction, which ups BP -Increase aldosterone (posterior pituitary) which increases Na+/Cl- reabsorption and conserves H2O |
-Increases ADH (antidiuretic hormone) (posterior pituitary) opens up aquaporins in the loop of henle
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Fluids
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-45-65% H2O- human composition
-Women tend to be lower in H2O concentration -Newborns to a few years are 75% H2O |
Two compartments:
a) Intracellular fluid (ICF)- 2/3 b) Extracellular fluid (ECF) 1/3 |
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Hypertonic Solutions
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A mixture of H2O & solutes more concentrated than normal blood.
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Hypotonic Solutions
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A mixture of H2O & solutes that will be less concentrated than normal blood
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Isotonic Solutions
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A mixture of H2O & solutes with the same concentration as normal blood. Because there is equal distribution, there is no H2O movement.
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Solutes
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Small particles (ions and small particles) that take up space in fluid.
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Non-electrolytes
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-Molecules that do not disassociate in H2O
-Formed by covalent bonds Ex. C6H12O6, urea |
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Electrolytes
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-Molecules that DO disassociate in H2O
-Formed from ionic bonds -After disassociation, molecules give off ions + or - Ex. NaCl + H2O= Na+ & Cl- |
Three types of electrolytes
-Acids -Bases -Salts |
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Acids
"H+ donors" |
-Electrolytes that give off H+ ions in solutions
-Strong Acids- give off all of H+ to solution Ex. HCl |
-Weak Acids- do not give off or release all of H+
Ex. H2CO3 |
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Bases
"H+ acceptors" |
-Electrolytes that give of OH- (hydroxyl group)
Ex. KOH (potassium hydroxide) |
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Salts
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-Electrolytes that give off or release neither H+ nor OH-
Ex. NaCl |
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H2CO3
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Carbonic Acid
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HCO3-
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Bicarbonate
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Water Gain & Loss
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Gain- daily
-About 2500ml total -Drink- 1600ml -Food- 700ml -Metabolic H2O- 200 |
Loss- daily
-About 2500 total -Urine-1500ml -Skin- 500ml (400ml transpired & 100ml sweat) -Respiration- 300ml from mucus membranes -Feces- 200ml |
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Acidosis
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-A drop in blood pH below 7.35
-resting potentials drop making the nervous system less active |
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Alkalosis
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-An increase of pH above 7.45
-Raises resting potentials causing excess nervous system activity |
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pH Regulation
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a) Skin- H+ is release
b) Kidneys- the prime mechanism to release H+ c) Respiration |
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Respiratory regulation of pH
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-CO2 is released from tissues and enters blood
-Every CO2 molecule eventually results in a free H+ -Once CO2 reaches blood it is immediately converted: CO2 +H20 -> H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3 |
-Once in the lungs the formula is reversed. CO2 enters aveoli to be breathed out.
CO2 + H2O <- H2CO3 <- HCO3- + H+ -If breathing slows or stops CO2 and H+ go up and pH goes down. Could lead to acidosis -If breathing increases rapidly CO2 and H+ go down and pH goes up. Can cause alkalosis |
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Primary Nutrients
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1) Carbohydrates
2) Lipids 3) Proteins 4) Minerals 5) Vitamins 6) Water |
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Eating Centers
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2 centers located in the hypothalamus:
a) Feeding Center- in a cluster of nurons (nucleus) -Low blood sugar is the primary drive for metabolic/bio hunger |
b) Satiety Center-in a cluster of nurons (nucleus)
-Creates the feeling of "not hungry" -High blood lipids |
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Glucose Metabolism
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Sources:
-Diet -Metabolic- we can make glucose from proteins and fats. This process is called gluconeogenisis -Gluconeogenisis- "new sugar creation" |
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3 Fates of glucose
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1) Convert to ATP
2) Store as glycogen (converted by insulin) in muscles and liver (up to 1LB 3) Convert to adipose tissue |
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Converting glucose into ATP
(See Notes) |
1) Glycolysis- takes place in cytosol
2) Kreb Cycle- occurs in mitochondria 3) Electron Transport Chain- occurs in mitochondria |
---Glycolysis
1 Glucose -2 ATP -2 NADH 2 Pyruvic Acids -2 NADH -2 CO2 AceCoA ---Kreb Cycle--- -2 ATP -4 CO2 -6 NADH ---Electron Transport Chain--- 10NADH -34 ATP -2 H2O |
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Lipid Metabolism
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Uses: Cholesterol
- Cell membranes -Steroids-> hormones -HDL/LDL |
Uses: Triglycerides
-Phospolipids -Sebum -Surfactant- fat in aveoli -Eicosanoids-> hormones Ex. Prostaglandins- responsible for inflammation and can cause contractions in the uterus |
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Fatty Acid Metabolism
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Fatty acids can be converted into AceCoA.
-Ketones are produced -H+ is released |
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Types of Proteins
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Structural:
-Collagen -Elastin -Reticular fibers -Keratin |
Functional Proteins:
-Actin/myosin -Plasma Proteins- fibrinogen, plasminogen, prothrombin, compliment proteins, angiotenisinogen, antibodies -Enzymes- ATPase, lactase, pepsin, maltase, hemoglobin, myoglobin |
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Protein Metabolism
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-Amino acids can be converted into AceCoA.
-The nitrogen group must be removed. -Removing the nitrogen causes NH3 (ammonia) to be released but it is quickly converted to urea. |
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Major Solutes
Sodium or Natrium |
-Na+ is the most abundant cation in ECF
Hyponatremia- low blood Na+ -Primary cause is drinking too much pure H2O |
Hypernatremia- high blood Na+
-Causes: reduced H2O intake, excessive sweating, increased Na+ intake -Problems- hypertension. Cells become dehydrated because water leaves the cell to dilute blood. This increases blood volume and raises BP |
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Major Solutes
Potassium |
-Most abundant cation in ICF
Hypokalemia- low blood Ca+ -Causes- excessive sweating, vomiting, excess loss of feces, kidney failure -This will hyperpolarize resting membranes and the nervous system becomes less active |
Hyperkalemia- High blood K+
-Causes: burns, transfusions, lethal injections -This hypopolarizes resting membranes and the nervous system becomes too active -The SA node becomes excessively active- leads to death |
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Major Solutes
Calcium |
-Most abundant ion in your body
Hypocalcemia- low blood Ca+ -Causes- malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, diarrhea, lactation, pregnancy -Problems- increased fx rate, cramping which can lead to death, increases Na+ permeability at excitable membranes which results in over active nervous system |
Hypercalcemia- high blood Ca+
-Causes- excess intake -Problems- bone spurs, lack of muscle tone, kidney stones and decreases Na+ permeability at excitable membranes which causes a depressed nervous system |
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Examples of amino acids
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Essential:
Valine Lysine Arginine Leucine |
Non-essential:
Glycine Proline Serine Tryosine |
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Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport Filtration |
The process in which particles are driven through a selectively permeable membrane by water pressure.
-Occurs at glomeruli and choroid plexuses. |
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Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport Simple Diffusion |
Movement of particles from areas of high
concentration towards areas of low concentration. |
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Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport Facilitated Diffusion |
-Diffusion involving a membrane protein.
-No ATP required. |
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Passive Mechanisms
Membrane Transport Osmosis |
Movement of water from areas of high water
concentration towards areas of low water concentration. |
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Active Mechanisms
Membrane Transport Active Transport |
Carrier mediated transport of a solute using ATP.
-Ex.Na+/K+ pumps in cell membranes. |
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Heart Walls
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-Outer layer- epicardium
-Middle layer- myocardium -Inner layer- endocardium |
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Epicardium
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-Serous membrane
-Simple squamous epithelium over a thin layer of aveolar tissue -Some spots with adipose tissue -Large coronary arteries |
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Endocardium
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-Same makeup as epicardium but no adipose tissue
-Lines interior chambers and valves |
-Serous membrane
-Simple squamous epithelium over a thin layer of aveolar tissue -Some spots with adipose tissue -Large coronary arteries |
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Myocardium
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Cardiac muscle- does the work
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Pericardium
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-A double walled sac
-Outer wall- pericardial sac/parietal paricardium- tough, superficial, fibrous layers of dense irregular connective tissue -Deeper layer- serous layer |
-Inner layer- visceral pericardium
-Contains ligaments -Between parietal & visceral membranes there is a space called the pericardial cavity- 5-30ml of pericardial fluid is exuded by serous layer which helps to lubricate and let the heart beat without friction |
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Heart Chambers
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-L&R Atria- thin walled receiving chambers- weird flaps auricle
-L&R Ventricles- pumps that eject blood into arteries and keep it flowing around the body |
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Conduction System of the Heart
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1) SA node fires "pacemaker"
2) Excitation spreads through the atrial myocardium 3) Av Node fires |
4) Excitation spreads down the AV bundle
5) Purkinje fibers distribute excitation through ventricular myocardium |
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Echocardiogram
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1) P wave- SA node depolarizes atria
2) PQ segment- travel time of signal from node to node 3) QRS complex- small downward deflection (Q), a sharp tall peak (R), and a final downward deflection (S). -has both repolarizaton and depolarization -the signal from the AV node spreads through the ventricular myocardium and then depolarizes the muscle |
4) ST segment- ventricular systole. Ventricles contract and eject blood
5) T-Wave- ventricular repolarizaton |