Bio 211: A&p I Exam 1

Front 1

define "homeostasis"

Back 1

the condition in which the body's internal environment remains relatively constant within certain physiological limits

Front 2

characteristics of a "steady state"

Back 2

1. open system to matter and heat
2. dynamic
3. living

Front 3

characteristics of a "chemical equilibrium"

Back 3

1. closed system to matter
2. static -- unchanging
3. non living

Front 4

the 6 components of a generic feedback system

Back 4

1. sensor
2. circuit
3. effector
4. response
5. feedback
6. shut-off

Front 5

function of a sensor

Back 5

detect change

Front 6

function of a circuit

Back 6

carries the signal

Front 7

function of an effector

Back 7

produces an effect; it does something

Front 8

function of response

Back 8

the output of the effector

Front 9

function of feedback

Back 9

it is the response detected by the sensor

Front 10

function of shut-off

Back 10

the sensor reacting to normalization

Front 11

list the components involved in the body's response to cold/warm temperatures

Back 11

1. receptors - in skin (peripheral) and in brain (central)

2. circuit - nerves

3. effectors - glands or muscles (in cold: shivering,
goosebumps, peripheral vasoconstriction, increased thyroid hormone; in warm: sweat glands, peripheral vasodilation, decreased thyroid hormone)

4. response - the secretion by a gland or the contraction/relaxation of a muscle

5. feedback - peripheral and central receptors detect normal temp

6. shut off - the receptors in the skin stop sending the signal bc body temp is back to normal

Front 12

"negative feedback" vs "positive feedback"

Back 12

in negative feedback, the response (to the change in the system) REVERSES the stimulus; it is STABILIZING and is the most common type in living beings to keep us in homeostasis! (ie. blood pressure, blood sugar, etc.)

in positive feedback, the response ENHANCES the stimulus (same direction), it is DESTABILIZING (ie. blood clotting and childbirth)

Front 13

homeostasis is the heart of all organ systems EXCEPT ___________________________.

Back 13

the reproductive system

Front 14

5 basic components of a eukaryotic cell

Back 14

1. cell membrane (plasma membrane, plasmalemma)
2. cytoplasm
3. inclusions
4. organelles
5. cell wall

Front 15

the structure of the cytoplasm

Back 15

1. the cytosol is the liquid part

2. the cytoskeleton is the non liquid part; consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. it maintains the cell's integrity (structure) and is involved in movement, both inside and outside the cell.

Front 16

define the term "inclusions"

Back 16

storage products made by the cell and stored in the cytoplasm (ie. glycogen and melanin)

Front 17

what is the function of the nucleus

Back 17

contains the genetic information of the cell --- chromosomes, genes, DNA

Front 18

what is the function of ribosomes

Back 18

they are where proteins are made in the cell

Front 19

what is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum

Back 19

intracellular transport

Front 20

what is the function of mitochondria

Back 20

stores energy from nutrients as ATP

Front 21

what is the function of the Golgi complex

Back 21

modifies protein structure as proteins move through it

Front 22

what is the function of lysosomes

Back 22

intracellular breakdown/digestion

Front 23

what is the function of peroxisomes

Back 23

detoxify by oxidation

Front 24

what is the function of flagella

Back 24

movement (motility), involved in swimming [ie. sperm cells]

Front 25

what is the function of cilia

Back 25

movement (motility) and they also sweep things past the cell [ie. in the throat]

Front 26

what is the function of centrioles

Back 26

guide chromosomes during cell division

Front 27

what is the function of chloroplasts

Back 27

they're involved in photosynthesis

Front 28

what is the difference between cilia and flagella

Back 28

flagella are few and long; cilia are short and there are many

Front 29

list the type of organisms in which a cell wall is found

Back 29

plants, fungi, bacteria and algae --- NOT in humans/animals or protozoa

Front 30

what is the difference between smooth ER and rough ER?

Back 30

rough ER has ribosomes attached to it, giving it a "rough" appearance; smooth ER has no ribosomes attached

Front 31

what is the difference between chromosomes, genes, and DNA?

Back 31

a gene resides on a chromosome and codes for a specific protein, and multiple chromosomes make up a strand of DNA, which is the molecular code that codes for all proteins which make up life.

Front 32

define matter

Back 32

anything that takes up space and has mass

Front 33

define element

Back 33

the simplest form of matter that cannot be broken into a simpler substance by a chemical reaction

Front 34

define atom

Back 34

basic units of matter that are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons

Front 35

define atomic number

Back 35

number of protons in the nucleus

Front 36

define atomic mass

Back 36

the total mass of the atom (p+n+e); it is the average of all isotopes

Front 37

define mass number

Back 37

number of particles in the nucleus (protons+neutrons)

Front 38

define isotope

Back 38

atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; some are radioactive

Front 39

list 3 uses for radioactive isotopes

Back 39

treat cancer, detect cancer, date fossils

Front 40

list the major elements of the body

Back 40

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus

Front 41

list the 3 principle subatomic particles, along with the charge each carries

Back 41

protons - positive
neutrons - neutral
electrons - negative

Front 42

list the parts of atoms involved in chemical reactions

Back 42

electrons, specifically the ones in the outer (valence) shell

Front 43

state the number of electrons permitted in the first three energy levels

Back 43

level K: 2
level L: 8
level M: 18

for a total of 28

Front 44

what are the three major types of chemical bonds?

Back 44

Ionic, Covalent, Hydrogen

Front 45

list the three major types of chemical bonds in order of strength

Back 45

weakest: hydrogen
intermediate: ionic
strongest: covalent

Front 46

define ionic bonds

Back 46

one element gives up electron(s) to another element; this produces ions (cations + and anions -); non-directional; intermediate strength [[ie. NaCl gives us Na+ and Cl-]]

Front 47

define covalent bonds

Back 47

valence electrons are shared between elements; directional bond (atom only attracts one other atom); strongest bond; most important bond from a biological standpoint [[ie. CH4 (methane)]]

Front 48

define hydrogen bonds

Back 48

this bond occurs between a Hydrogen in one polar covalent bond and another atom (usually an Oxygen or Nitrogen in another polar covalent bond); directional bond; weakest [[ie. lots of water molecules -- the hydrogens from one compound is also bonded with another oxygen from a different compound]]

Front 49

contrast the two types of covalent bonds

Back 49

polar covalent: 1 atom has greater attraction (electronegativity) for electrons than the other when they share (one atom has more of a positive charge) [[ie. one water molecule]]

nonpolar covalent: the atoms equally share the electrons [[ie. H+ and H+]]

Front 50

define the term "electronegativity"

Back 50

the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in the formation of a bond

Front 51

contrast "molecule" and "compound"

Back 51

molecule: 2 or more atoms bound together

compound: 2 or more DIFFERENT atoms bound together

Front 52

the octet rule

Back 52

beginning with the second energy level (because the first one can only hold 2) ---> 8 electrons = stable

Front 53

valence

Back 53

the number of extra or missing electrons in the outermost energy level

Front 54

what are inert elements?

Back 54

noble gases; they're unreactive because they have 8 electrons in their valence shell, thus they have no need to bond with other elements

Front 55

why is water the "universal solvent?"

Back 55

water is found everywhere ; it's an aqueous solution and its hydrogen bonding gives water unique properties

Front 56

give 5 reasons why water is the universal solvent:

Back 56

1. cohesion - water molecules are attracted to each other

2. adhesion - water molecules also stick to other molecules

3. high heat capacity - water needs lots of heat to raise its temperature

4. high heat of vaporization

5. water expands when it freezes

6. water ionizes

Front 57

what is the difference between "organic" and "inorganic" compounds?

Back 57

organic compounds contain both carbon and hydrogen; inorganic compounds do not

Front 58

what does it mean if something is hydrophilic?

Back 58

"water loving"

Front 59

what does it mean if something is hydrophobic?

Back 59

"water-fearing"

Front 60

what is a free radical?

Back 60

organic compounds in which a carbon atom has one unpaired electron -- "open bond." they're extremely reactive.

-yl

ie. CH3CH2•

Front 61

what is a hydrocarbon?

Back 61

hydrocarbons contain only hydrogen and carbon; divided into three groups (based on the types of bonds joining the carbon atoms): alkanes, alkenes, alkynes

Front 62

what types of bonds do alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes have?

Back 62

alkanes - ONLY single bonds between carbon atoms

alkenes - at least one double bond between carbon atoms

alkynes - at least one triple bond between carbon atoms

Front 63

what are alcohols?

Back 63

they contain hydroxyl groups (OH). their general formula is ROH, where "R" represents a radical

-ol

the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl group is given the lowest # possible

Front 64

what is the difference between terminal alcohols and nonterminal alcohols?

Back 64

Terminal alcohols have the hydroxyl group on the end (ie. 1-propanol)

Nonterminal alcohols have the hydroxyl group on the interior (ie. 2-propanol)

Front 65

what is an ether?

Back 65

Ethers are formed by dehydration or condensation reaction between 2 alcohol compounds, in which water is removed by combining the hydroxyl (OH) group of one alcohol with the hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group of the other.

The general formula is ROR

They are named by naming the two radicals (in alphabetical order), then adding the word "ether."

Front 66

what are aldehydes?

Back 66

Aldehydes are produced by oxidation of terminal alcohols


look for CHO (the aldehyde or formyl group) with the carbon double bonded to the oxygen

-al

the aldehyde group must be included in finding the carbon backbone

Front 67

what are ketones?

Back 67

Ketones are formed when non-terminal alcohols are oxidized by removal of hydrogen atoms (a double bond forms to the oxygen atom), and the resulting CO group is called the ketone group


the ketone group must be included in finding the carbon backbone

the carbon # is indicated, followed by the root of the name and the ending "one"

Front 68

what are organic (carboxylic) acids?

Back 68

carboxylic acids form when aldehydes are further oxidized by the addition of oxygen. this results in the formation of the COOH group called a carboxyl group.

the carbon that is part of the carboxyl group must be included in the carbon backbone

-oic acid

Front 69

how many carbons does the prefix "meth" have?

Back 69

1

Front 70

how many carbons does the prefix "eth" have?

Back 70

2

Front 71

how many carbons does the prefix "prop" have?

Back 71

3

Front 72

how many carbons does the prefix "but" have?

Back 72

4

Front 73

how many carbons does the prefix "pent" have?

Back 73

5

Front 74

how many carbons does the prefix "hex" have?

Back 74

6

Front 75

how many carbons does the prefix "hept" have?

Back 75

7

Front 76

how many carbons does the prefix "oct" have?

Back 76

8

Front 77

how many carbons does the prefix "non" have?

Back 77

9

Front 78

how many carbons does the prefix "dec" have?

Back 78

10

Front 79

what is the general formula for radicals?

Back 79

R


Carbon + hydrogen where there's one unpaired electron

Front 80

what is the general formula for hydrocarbons?

Back 80

Carbon & Hydrogen ONLY

Front 81

what is the general formula for alcohols?

Back 81

ROH

Front 82

what is the general formula for ethers?

Back 82

ROR

Front 83

what is the general formula for aldehydes?

Back 83

RCHO

Front 84

what is the general formula for ketones?

Back 84

RR'CO

Front 85

what is the general formula for organic (carboxylic) acids?

Back 85

RCOOH

Front 86

what is the general formula for alkanes?

Back 86

Front 87

what is the general formula for alkenes?

Back 87

Front 88

what is the general formula for alkynes?

Back 88

Front 89

how are ethers formed?

Back 89

Ethers are formed by a dehydration/condensation reaction between two alcohols; water is removed, leaving ROR

Front 90

how are aldehydes formed?

Back 90

oxidation of terminal alcohols

RCHO

Front 91

how are ketones formed?

Back 91

oxidation by removal of hydrogen atoms in non-terminal alcohols

RCO

Front 92

how are organic (carboxylic) acids formed?

Back 92

when aldehydes are further oxidized by the addition of oxygen

COOH

Front 93

name some simple examples of organic molecules

Back 93

butane, propanoic acid, propanal, ethanol, propanone

Front 94

what are the major categories of carbohydrates?

Back 94

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Front 95

give 3 examples for each major category of carbohydrates

Back 95

monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose

all are hexoses (have 6 carbons)

C6H12O6


disaccharides: maltose, sucrose, lactose

C12H22O11


polysaccharides: glycogen, starch, cellulose (& chitin)

Front 96

contrast the terms "hydrolysis" and "dehydration synthesis"

Back 96

hydrolysis - adding water

dehydration (condensation) - removal of water

Front 97

define the term "isomer"

Back 97

chemical compounds with the same formula but different structures

Front 98

what is the component monosaccharides for maltose?

Back 98

glucose + glucose

Front 99

what is the component monosaccharides for sucrose?

Back 99

glucose + fructose

Front 100

what is the component monosaccharides for lactose?

Back 100

glucose + galactose

Front 101

what are the differences between glycogen, starch, and cellulose?

Back 101

glycogen is how animals store glucose (in liver and muscle cells)

starch is how plants store glucose

cellulose gives plants STRUCTURE, not storage!

Front 102

list the 8 types of lipids

Back 102

1. triglycerides
2. phospholipids
3. waxes
4. sterols
5. lipoproteins
6. eicosanoids
7. carotenoids
8. fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

Front 103

list the building blocks of triglycerides

Back 103

glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Front 104

define the term "saturation"

Back 104

only single bonds, thus the carbons are "saturated" with hydrogen

Front 105

what are the 3 functions of triglycerides?

Back 105

energy, insulation, padding

Front 106

what are the 7 functions of proteins?

Back 106

1. structural
2. enzymes
3. regulatory
4. contractile
5. immunological
6. transport
7. energy

Front 107

what are the building blocks of proteins?

Back 107

amino acids

Front 108

what elements do proteins contain?

Back 108

C, H, O, N, S

Front 109

what is the general structure of an amino acid?

Back 109

Front 110

what is the name of the bond joining amino acids together?

Back 110

peptide bond; it is the carbon of the carboxyl group on one amino acid + the nitrogen from the amino group on another amino acid

Front 111

what are the four levels of protein organization?

Back 111

1. primary
2. secondary
3. tertiary
4. quaternary

Front 112

define the four levels of protein organization

Back 112

1. primary: the sequence (order) the amino acids are in

2. secondary: repetitions in the structure (due to H bonds between nearby amino acids)

3. tertiary: the overall shape of the protein in 3D space [ due to interactions between distant R groups]

4. quaternary: the polypeptide arrangement [in proteins that have more than one polypeptide]

Front 113

what is denaturation?

Back 113

disruption of H bonds (via heat, radiation, chemicals, etc.); alters the shape and function. ie. an egg

Front 114

define the term "enzyme"

Back 114

globular proteins [all coiled up -- tertiary structure!] that act as biological catalysts

Front 115

list the components of enzymes

Back 115

apoenzyme: the protein

cofactor: an inorganic compound
coenzyme: an organic compound

holoenzyme: the complete, functional enzyme


apoenzyme + cofactor or coenzyme = holoenzyme

Front 116

list 5 characteristics of enzymes

Back 116

1. unchanged
2. specific
3. catalyze in both directions [bring together & break apart]
4. lower activation energy
5. can't catalyze impossible reactions [ones that wouldn't happen anyway]

Front 117

list the name of the site to which a substrate binds on an enzyme

Back 117

active site

Front 118

what are the 2 mechanisms of enzyme action?

Back 118

1. lock and key hypothesis

2. induced fit hypothesis

Front 119

describe the lock and key hypothesis

Back 119

specific substrates (key) fit specific active sites (lock) perfectly like a lock and a key

Front 120

describe the induced fit hypothesis

Back 120

the enzyme's active site changes shape to "better fit" the substrate

Front 121

list 5 factors affecting the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions

Back 121

1. temperature
2. pH
3. concentration of reactant molecules
4. inhibitors
5. thermodynamics

Front 122

define the term "exergonic"

Back 122

energy releasing

the products of the reaction will have LESS energy than the reactants [because energy has been released]

ie. hand warmers, striking a match

Front 123

define the term "endergonic"

Back 123

energy gaining

products contain MORE energy than the reactants [because energy is gained]

ie. instant cold pack

Front 124

what do all chemical reactions require to start the reaction?

Back 124

activation energy

Front 125

reactions happen faster if activation energy is lowered by ____________________.

Back 125

catalysts

Front 126

what do enzymes do?

Back 126

1. increase collisions
2. lower activation energy
3. orients reactions

Front 127

contrast the two types of inhibitors

Back 127

1. competitive: interferes with active site of enzyme so substrate cannot bind; competes with the substrate so the reaction doesn't happen

2. noncompetitive: changes shape of the enzyme so it cannot bind to the substrate; binds to enzyme outside of the active site