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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Central Traits
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Certain traits influence our impression more than names of others
Calleng someone Warm and cold nfluence are belief about a person more than calling someone industrious |
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Schemata
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Organized interconnected mental networks based on previous experiences. Used to judge and interpret current situation.
- people pay more attention to information that confirms schemata and recall information better if it is consistent with their schemata |
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Illusory Correlation
Confirmation Bias |
correlate two events because they occurred together, similar to confirmation bias because it causes us to pay more attention to information that confirms our bias and ignore information that contradicts it.
-is considered to be the cause of a schemata that links the two variables together (e.g., meet a politician and assume she is dishonest) |
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Rosenhan Study
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pseudopatients admitted to the hospital, many were diagnosed with schizophrenia though they no longer reported those symptoms.
-33% of other patients thought they were sane, but staff diagnosed all but 1 with schizophrenia. Demonstrated the idea of social context on impression formation |
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Base Rate Fallacy
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People will ignore a given statistic of probability and focus on case-specific information (personality traits, situational factors, etc.)
- has been argued that the base rate fallacy is a fallacy due to poor research methods |
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Fundamental Attribution Bias (correspondence bias/attribution effect)
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overestimating the role of dispositional factors and underestimating the role of situational factors on someone else's behavior
- does not apply when we make inferences about our own behavior |
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self-serving bias
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blame external factors for failures and internal factors for successes
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actor-observer bias
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the tendency to make different attributions to our own behavior than to other people's behavior
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attribution pattern of depressed people
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attribute their failures to (dispositional) internal, stable and global factors (learned helplessness)
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Affiliation & anxiety (schachter)
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it was believed that as anxiety increases, the desire to affiliate increases
Schachter found that highly anxious people chose to affiliate with other highly anxious people (misery loves miserable company)-DUE TO SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY |
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Affiliation and Gender
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females spend more time in conversation, are more likely to interact with same-sex person and spend more time in public affiliating
Female friendships depend more on self-disclosure Male friendships depend more on shared activities |
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Gain-Loss Theory
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attraction is maximized when a persons initial evaluation is negative and then becomes positive
most likely if change is gradual and a true "change of heart" |
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Social Exchange Theory
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decision to leave a relationships depends on costs and rewards input and output
more predictive of relationships with strangers, acquaintances and business associates |
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Equity Theory
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the perception of fairness is more important to relationship that actual input/output.Equity is measured by comparing the ratio of contributions (or costs) and benefits (or rewards) for each person.
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Emotion-in-Relationship Model
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the innate mechanism for emotion is related to an unexpected event that disrupts normal behaviors
Positive emotions are more likely to be intense during beginning of relationship because partner is still new and "unexpected" behaviors occur more frequently |
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Self-Perception Theory (Bem)
Self-perception theory- (Schachter and Singer) |
People identify their own attitude how they would evaluate others attitude.
When internal cues are weak people interpret how they feel based on the situation
interpret our own. Schacter: Epinephrine study-Experience an ambiguous physiological arousal then interpret it based on external cues and make a cognitive interpretation. |
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Overjustification Hypothesis
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When a person is given an external reward for a task, their internal rewards/satisfaction will decrease
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Social Comparison Theory (festinger)
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1. People have a drive to evaluate their opinions and behaviors
2. in absence of formal standard, people compare to other people 3. we often compare to people who have a similar attitude/behavior, HOWEVER - when we are evaluating a negative attitude/behavior, we compare to someone who has more of that trait (downward comparison) |
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Self-Verification Theory
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People with positive self-concepts prefer people to confirm those concepts, people with negative self-concept also prefer to have those negative concepts confirmed
research is mixed-some prefer self-enhancing f/b others prefer accurate |
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Self-Monitoring
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High Self-Monitoring: focused on what the "public self" is and how to alter "private self" (feelings) to fit public perception - good at identifying socially desirable behavior
Low Self-Monitoring: focused on "private self"and attempt to alter situation to fit their attitudes |
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Barnum Effect
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Forer Effect
People tend to accept vague/general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves (e.g., the horoscope is so accurate) - influenced by confirmation bias |
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autokinetic effect (Sherif's study)
Asch study on group conformity |
when stationary point in a room appears to move
-Convergence effect: when people heard what others thought about the light in the room, their estimate of mvmt changed to conform with the group group conformity: less likely if one one person disagrees with the group norm or if responses can be given anonymously. |
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Obedience to authority (Milgram)
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-criticized on methodological grounds
-the closer the learner to the teacher, the less likely the teacher would obey experimenter's order to shock learner - even less likely to deliver shock when order given over phone or when experiment moved to warehouse, or when assistant (confederate) refused to obey orders of experimenter -84% were glad they participated |
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bases of social power
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coercive: control of punishment
Reward: control over resources Expert: influencing b/c superior ability/knowledge Referent: likeable Legitimate: believed to have legitimate authority Informational: person possesses information needed by person mental health professionals: expert and referent |
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- Social influences on Behavior-power -compliance -idenitification -internalization |
Compliance: change bx to obtain reward, avoid punishment (no internal change of opinion) usually reward & coercive power
Identification: change bx because wants to be liked (change maintained only as long as the leader continues to be liked/admired) usually referent power Internalization: change bx because privately accepts beliefs, attitudes. Usually informational, expert, legitimate power |
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Minority Influence
Best way to increase likelihood of change? |
usually they start out as being perceived as deviant, incompotent, unreasonable
If they maintain consistent, clear, firm, confident position people will likely comply for informational reasons, but conform to group norms to avoid punishment or to be liked. Often minority influence results in attitude change, rather than just compliance which is often what the majority group provokes Increase change in majority: Consistent message without being dogmatic |
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Psychological reactance
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when a limit is set, and person feels a loss of personal freedom the person may respond in the opposite way that is desired.
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Theory of Planned Behavior (attitude)
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- research has shown that attitude in general does not have a strong influence on bx
Ajzen: attitudes are accurate predictors when attitudes of behavioral intention are measured 1. attitude toward engaging in the behavior 2. what the person believes others think he/she should do 3. person's perceived bx control |
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Characteristics of Communicator and Attitude Change
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Credibility is key contributor to attitude change, however the difference between highly credible and not credible sources declines over time as people forget the source of the message and just remember the message
-Trustworthiness(contributes to credibility) |
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Characteristics of Communication (order, discrepancy)
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Level of discrepancy: greatest attitude change if MODERATE
Order of Presentation: if tested on delay after 2 consecutive presentations, Primacy Effect if there is time between presentations and tested immediately after 2nd, recency effect |
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Accidental Messages and Attitude Change
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more likely than intentional messages to produce attitude change b/c communicator is seen as trustworthy when it is overheard
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Characteristics of Audience & Persuasion
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susceptible to persuasion: Low IQ, low or high self-esteem, teens/20s
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
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When people have conflicting (incompatible) cognitions, they attempt to relieve the tension...Change attitudes or bx, add information to downplay importance of inconsistency
the more someone suffers for something, the more they enjoy it Festinger & Carlsmith's research on boring task and $1 o $20 to tell someone it was interesting |
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Balance Theory
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P: Person
O: Other Person X: other object/person/idea if all three are similar the system is in balance, if not, one must change. Strive for cognitive constancy to explain attitude change |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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Central Route: when listener is interested in message (motivation high), the message is personally relevant to them, they are in a neutral or slightly neg. mood...attitude change depends on QUALITY of argument
Peripheral route: message boring to listener or they are in positive mood (unmotivated). Attitude change depends on QUANTITY of argument, and persuasive cues such as attractiveness of presenter central route produces more long-term attitude change that is resistant to persuasion |
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Social Judgement Theory
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3 categories of judgement by which we evaluate persuasive messagesLatitude of Acceptance
Latitude of Non-Commitment Latitude of Rejection size of latitude is effected by ego involvement (more ego involved, the larger latitude of rejection and smaller the other latitudes) more likely to change attitude if small-moderate discrepancy between current position and presented position |
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Attitude Inoculation (McGuire)
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people are more able to resist a persuasive message if they are inoculated by hearing arguments and weak counterarguments against their own position
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Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
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aggression is a result of frustration which is produced when a desire is blocked (1939)
frustration creates readiness for aggression, but expression of that aggression will require arousal and appropriate aggressive cues(gun) (1971) |
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Social Learning Theory of Aggression
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Bandura.
Result of observations and modeling/imitation Bobo doll |
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Effects of Media violence on aggression
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some believe media violence to be catharsis for aggression, others say it models how to be violent
research: viewing violence increases aggressiveness Attitudes: judge aggressive retaliation more (+), overestimate likelihood of being victimized, greater support for prison sentences to reduce crime |
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Effects of Pornography on violence/aggression
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mild erotica: reduce violence
explicit porn (esp. with violent themes) increases violence increases permissiveness of violence toward women |
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Deindividuation & Aggression
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more likely to be aggressive if they believe it is anonymous because inhibitory effects of shame, guilt, evaluation and responsibility are not as strong
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Social Roles & Aggression
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Zimbardo's prison study
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Catharsis Hypothesis
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promote idea that acting aggressively reduces the arousal level and therefore reduces aggressive tendencies for future aggressive behavior
research does not support this, as the aggressive acts promote negative feelings toward person |
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Threat of Retaliation
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when a threat of retaliation is made from a person of status/power, aggressiveness decreases
if threat is coupled with provocation, aggression increases, but may be displaced |
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symbolic racism
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Sears and colleagues
often believe minorities violate traditional American values Attribute social and economic problems to minorities reject obvious forms of prejudice, but oppose programs est. to help those who've been discriminated against |
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-Causes of Prejudice-
AuthroritarIan Personality Intergroup Conflict Group Identity |
A: High rigidity, cynicism, commitment to conventional values
I: Caused by competition over power and limited resources (at the expense of another group) (Sherif) G: motivated to maintain a positive group identity that is distinctive and has benefits for the individual and society |
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Ways to Reduce prejudice
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Legislation: Ban discrimination
Intergroup Contact: Prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups (contact hypothesis) |
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Sexual Prejudice
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negative attitudes based on sexual orientation
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Contact Hypothesis
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contact between "rival" groups can alleviate prejudice IF:
1. members have equal status and power 2. provided opporutnity to disconfirm their beliefs of the stereotypes 3. contact sanctioned by law or other support 4. contact requires superordinate goals and cooperation |
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Robber's Cave Study
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groups were promoted to be highly competitive and hostile to opposing group
only superordinate goals requiring cooperation worked to build the division in groups |
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jigsaw method
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each member of a student team was assigned a particular aspect of a group project
study reduced ethnic stereotyping, increased attraction to people of other ethnic groups, enhanced self-esteem and cooperation and produced more (+) attitudes toward school |
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Bystander Apathy (reasons for it)
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bystanders are less likely to intervene when there are others around because:
1. pluralistic ignorance: assistance isn't necessary because no on else is offering it 2. evaluation apprehension: fear of social disapproval 3. Diffusion of responsibility: don't assume responsibility because they think others will bystanders are more likely to intervene if: non-ambiguous, rural, has some sense of responsibility to victim, someone else has intervened, feels competent to help |
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Field Theory (Lewin)
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psychological event depends on the state of the person at the time and the environment. Behavior is a function of the persons characteristics and environment = (life space)
B=f(LS) or B=f(P,E) |
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Types of Intra-Individual Conflict /motivational conflicts (miller/Lewin)
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approach-avoidance: a single goal has both + and −. The approach becomes stronger as we avoid, but the avoidance becomes stronger as we approach the goal.
double approach-avoidance: choose between two goals that both have (+) and (-) aspects |
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Zeigernik Effect
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You are more likely to recall something that is unresolved than a task that is complete, because of the unresolved tension
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Effects of crowding
Density intensity hypothesis |
-little effect on simple task, poorer performance on complex task
-linked to delinquency, health problems, MH problems, poor academics, higher mortality -people prefer crowding at sporting events or concerts and laugh more in high density Hypothesis: different effects of crowding because c crowd enhances + experiences/situations but makes unpleasant situations even more unpleasant
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Prototypes Scripts (event schema) |
P: a representative or ideal example if a particular category S: Provide knowledge about appropriate behavior. Knowledge about a mental health clinic informs how you should behave in that setting. |
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Evolution Theory (behavior) |
prosocial behavior is the result of kin selection, which refers to biological predisposition that developed as a means of survival of our genes
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heuristics |
-mental shortcuts simulatory: If we think about ourselves getting HIV we think it is more possible -representative: e.g., Making judgement about the probability of an event. You are tall you must play basketball. -Availability heuristic: judging about the probability of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve the information. anchoring and adjustment heuristic: based on initial value |
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False Consensus effect |
We overestimate the degree to which the beliefs, opinions, and behaviors of others are similar to our own. |
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Gamblers fallacy |
Tendency to believe that the likelihood of a chance event is affected by the occurrence of previous events when there is no relationship (e.g.,it hit black 3 times it is going to be red now) |
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Law of attraction |
we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interacting with those individuals is more rewarding than the alternative (dissimilar attitude people) |
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Locus of control(Rotter) |
The extent to which one believes that personal outcomes are controlled by internal or external factors |
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Compliance with requests Foot in the door technique Door in the face |
-ask fr a mall request then when accepted ask for a larger request - Make a large request then when rejected make smaller request that is actually desired |
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heterosexism (herek1992) |
ideological system that denies/denigrates/stigmatizesnonhetero bx, identity, relationships, or community- herek states underlies violence against lesbians/gays |
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Allport-ways to reduce prejudice |
Folkways: personal attitudes or beliefs Stateways: legislation or laws prohibiting discrimination. Folkways do not need to precede stateways |
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Intelligent competent people are liked more when they... |
Occasionally make a blunder |
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Sue and Sue Racial Cultural Identity Model |
The model has 5 stages 1. Conformity 2. Dissonance 3. Immersion/resistance 4. Introspection 5. Integrative Awareness |
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Sue and Sue Conformity |
The individual completelyembraces the dominant culture'sbeliefs and customs. Rejects own culture and views it with contempt. |
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Sue and Sue Dissonance |
Conflicting messages and observations that are inconsistent with the view of one'sown minority culture and the dominant culture. Questioningbeliefs from Conforming stage |
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Sue and Sue Immersion/Resistance |
Completely embraces minorityculture's values and beliefs andrejects those of the dominantculture. Identification withminority. |
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Sue and Sue Introspection |
Experiences conflict and questions appreciation /depreciation of own culture. |
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Sue and Sue Integrative Awareness |
Self-appreciation and selective appreciation of majority group Person can appreciate unique aspects of his or her culture as well as those of the dominant US cultures. |
