Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
100 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What are psychologists who study cognition interested in? |
Pattern recognition, attention, memory, visual imagery, language, problem solving, and decision making. |
|
|
Cognitive psychology |
Refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. |
|
|
How does cognition begin? |
With our contact with the external world. |
|
|
What does transformation of the sensory input mean? |
That our representation of the world is not just a passive registration of our physical surroundings but an active construction that can involve both reduction and elaboration. |
|
|
Reduction |
When information is lost |
|
|
Elaboration |
Occurs when we add to sensory input |
|
|
Memory |
The storage and recovery of info |
|
|
What does the sensory store provide? |
Brief storage for info in its original sensory form |
|
|
What does the sensory store do? |
Extends the amount of time a person has to recognize a pattern. |
|
|
What are the 2 theories of pattern recognition? |
1. That we can recognize only one patten at a time. 2. That simultaneous patterns can all be recognized but only some will be remembered. |
|
|
What do theorists who believe we can recognize only one pattern argue? |
That attention acts as a filter that determines which patterns will be recognized when many patterns arrive simultaneously. |
|
|
If simultaneous patterns can be recognized, what selects the patterns that will be remembered? |
Attention |
|
|
What does the filter do? |
Limits the amount of info that can be recognized at one time. |
|
|
What does the selection stage do? |
Limits the amount of material that can be entered into memory. |
|
|
What is STM limited by? |
Both the amount of info it can hold (capacity) and the length of time it can hold the info (duration). |
|
|
Bottom-up processing |
The flow of info from the sensory store to LTM |
|
|
Top-down processing |
The flow of info from LTM toward the sensory store |
|
|
What psychologists negatively affected the study of cognition and why? |
Watson. He believed that psychologists should study only what they can directly observe in a person's behavior. |
|
|
What does the info-processing approach seek? |
To identify how a person transforms info between the stimulus and the response. |
|
|
Who proposed one of the first models based on an info processing analysis? |
Broadbent |
|
|
Broadbent's Model |
A filter model to account for performance on selective listening tasks |
|
|
What does Broadbent's filter model propose? |
That the listener can attend to only one message at a time Attention is controlled by the filter |
|
|
According to Broadbent's filter model, when can 2 simultaneous messages both be recognized? |
2 simultaneous messages can both be recognized only if the unattended message passes through the filter before it decays fun the sensory store. |
|
|
What does TOTE stand for? |
Test-Operate-Test-Exit |
|
|
What are the 4 most widely recognized branches of psychology? |
Psychoanalysis Behaviorism Cognitive Neuroscience |
|
|
What is cognitive science the study of? |
Intelligence in humans, computer programs, and abstract theories, with an emphasis on intelligent behavior as computation. |
|
|
What 2 concepts did cognitive psychologists borrow from AI? |
1. Semantic Networks: describes how people organize ideas in KTM 2. Production Systems: explains how we use rules to perform cognitive talks |
|
|
Where is the primary visual cortex located? |
Occipital lobe |
|
|
What does the parietal lobe do? |
Deals with body info, including touch. |
|
|
What does the temporal lobe do? |
Helps understand language and contributes to recognizing complex visual patterns, such as faces. |
|
|
What does the frontal lobe do? |
Receives sensations from all sensory Systems and contributes to planning motor movements. |
|
|
What are templates? |
Holistic, or unanalyzed, entities that we compare with other patterns by measuring how much two patterns overlap. |
|
|
What are the 4 problems with using degree of overlap as a measure of pattern recognition? |
1. The comparison requires that the template be in the same position, orientation, and the same size as the pattern you are trying to identify. 2. The great variability of patterns. 3. A template Theory doesn't reveal how to patterns differ. 4. A template Theory does not allow for alternative descriptions of a pattern. |
|
|
In what situations does a template Theory provide a useful model? |
Patterns can be represented as unanalyzed templates, which are analyzed into their features during the pattern recognition stage. |
|
|
What is an interstimulus interval? |
The time separating two stimuli |
|
|
What is a feature Theory? |
A theory of pattern recognition that describes patterns in terms of their parts or features |
|
|
What do feature theories allow us to do? |
Allow us to describe a pattern by listing its parts |
|
|
What are features theories convenient for? |
Describing perceptual learning |
|
|
What is Gibson's theory on perceptual learning? |
That perceptual learning occurs through the discovery of features that distinguish one pattern from another |
|
|
Where does part of the evidence for future theories come from? |
Recording the action potentials of individual cells in the visual cortex |
|
|
What are Gibson's four criteria for selecting a set of features for uppercase letters? |
1. The features should be critical ones, present in some members of the set but not in others, so as to provide contrast. 2. The identity of the features should remain unchanged under changes in brightness, size, and perspective. 3. The feature should yield a unique pattern for each other. 4. The number of proposed features should be reasonably small. |
|
|
How is a set of features usually evaluated? |
By determining how well it can predict perceptual confusions as confusable items should have many features in common. |
|
|
What is perceptual confusion? |
A measure of the frequency with which two patterns are mistakenly identified as each other. |
|
|
What do the comparison of the Gibson model and the Geyer and de wald model reveal? |
That the feature set by Geyer and de wald was Superior in predicting the confusion errors made by adults and 4 year olds. |
|
|
What is a distinctive feature? |
A feature present in one pattern but absent in another, eating once discrimination of the two patterns |
|
|
What are the two benefits produced by emphasizing the distinctive features? |
1. Is enabled them to learn the distinctive features so that they could continue to differentiate letters after the distinctive features were no longer highlighted. 2. Enable them to learn the features without making many errors during the training session |
|
|
What did Ullman discover? |
That more complex features such as mouths and ears or tail lights of cars are particularly helpful for identifying objects |
|
|
Why are low-level features needed? |
To distinguish among the different types of a complex feature |
|
|
What do structural theories emphasize? |
The relations among the features by building on feature theories |
|
|
What does a structural Theory allow for? |
Specification of how the features fit together |
|
|
What does Hoffman suggest? |
That people follow rules and producing descriptions of patterns |
|
|
What is the first rule of Hoffman's book? |
To always see a straight line in an image as a straight line in three dimensions |
|
|
What determines the perceived similarity of patterns? |
Both the components and the relations among the components |
|
|
What are Geons? |
Different three-dimensional shapes combine to form three-dimensional patterns |
|
|
According to biederman, how many Geons do we need to describe objects in the world? |
35 |
|
|
According to biederman, it is easier to discriminate 1 geon from a different geon than...? |
It is to discriminate between two variations of the same Geon. |
|
|
What did biederman find that was particularly detrimental for object recognition? |
Destroying relational information |
|
|
What is the whole-report procedure? |
A task that requires observers to report everything they see in a display of items |
|
|
What is a partial-report procedure? |
A task in which The Observers are cute or only certain items in a display of items. |
|
|
What assumption is the partial report technique based on? |
That the number of letters reported from the cued row equals the average number of letters perceived in each of the rows given that the subjects did not know in advance which row to look at. |
|
|
Who designed the partial report technique and why? |
Sperling designed the partial-report technique to reduce the memory requirements of his task and to obtain a "pure" measure of perception. |
|
|
What is Sperling best remembered for? |
Sperling is best remembered for the discovery of the importance of a visual Sensory store |
|
|
What did spurling's info processing model of performance consist of? |
A visual info store, scanning, rehearsal, and an auditory info store. |
|
|
What is a visual information store? |
A sensory store that maintains visual info for approximately a quarter of a second |
|
|
What does the Decay rate of the info in the visual information store depend on? |
Intensity, contrast, duration of the stimulus, and also whether exposure to the stimulus is followed by a second exposure. |
|
|
When does visual masking occur? |
When a second exposure, consisting of a brightly lighted field or a different set of patterns, reduces the effectiveness of the visual info store |
|
|
What is the auditory info store in sperling's model? |
The store maintains verbal info in short-term memory through rehearsal |
|
|
What did Sperling learn about how people scan patterns? |
In 1967, Sperling discovered that patterns were not scanned one at a time but were analyzed simultaneously |
|
|
What is serial processing? |
Carrying out one operation at a time |
|
|
What is parallel processing? |
Carrying out more than one operation at a time |
|
|
Why did Sperling modify his idea of the scan component? |
To allow for pattern recognition to occur simultaneously over the entire display |
|
|
What is the scan component? |
The attention component of sperling's model that determines what is recognized in the visual information store. |
|
|
How did Rumelhart propose that recognition occurred? |
By identification of the features of a pattern |
|
|
What is feature recognition? |
According to Rumelhart, feature recognition occurs simultaneously over the entire display, but it takes time to recognize features; the more time the Observer has, the more features The Observer can recognize. |
|
|
What is the rate of feature recognition in Rumelhart's model influence by? |
Both the clarity of the info and the number of items in the display. |
|
|
When the exposure terminates, what happens to the clarity? |
The clarity declines as the visual info store decays |
|
|
According to Rumelhart what slows the rate of recognition? |
As the number of items increase the amount of attention that can be focused on each item decreases and this slows the rate of recognition |
|
|
Why did Rumelhart suggest that people can only report 4.5 letters on average in the whole report procedure? |
Because of a perceptual limitation rather than a memory limitation |
|
|
What did Rumelhart's model assume about the partial report procedure? |
The Observer tries to recognize letters over the entire display before hearing the tone |
|
|
What is the detection paradigm? |
A procedure in which observers have to specify which two possible Target patterns is present in a display |
|
|
What is the word superiority effect? |
The finding that accuracy in recognizing a letter is higher when the letter is in a word then when it appears alone or is in a non-word |
|
|
The word superiority effect is another example of what kind of processing? |
Top-down processing |
|
|
What does the word superiority effect show? |
How our knowledge of words helps us two more rapidly recognize the letters within a word |
|
|
What is the interactive activation model? |
A theory proposing that will feature knowledge and word knowledge combined to provide info about the identity of letters in a word. Proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart |
|
|
What is an excitatory connection? |
A positive association between Concepts that belong together, as when a vertical line provides support for the possibility that a letter is a k. |
|
|
What is an inhibitory connection? |
A negative association between Concepts that do not belong together, as when the presence of a vertical line provides negative evidence that a letter is a d |
|
|
What are the two different senses in which processing is parallel in the interactive model? |
1. Visual processing is spatially parallel resulting in the simultaneous processing of all four letters in a four letter word 2. Visual processing is also parallel in the sense that recognition occurs simultaneously at three different levels of abstraction |
|
|
What are the three levels of abstraction in the interactive activation model? |
1. The feature level 2. The letter level 3. The word level |
|
|
What do the three levels of abstraction interact to determine? |
What we perceive |
|
|
What do the excitatory and inhibitory influences combine to do? |
Determine the total activation of each letter |
|
|
What is parallel distributed processing? |
When info is simultaneously collected from different sources and combined to reach a decision |
|
|
What is the neural network model? |
A theory in which concepts (nodes) are linked to other Concepts through excitatory and inhibitory connections to approximate the behavior of neural networks in the brain. |
|
|
What are nodes? |
The format for representing Concepts in a semantic Network |
|
|
What is an activation rule? |
A rule that determines how inhibitory and excitatory connections combine to determine the total activation of a concept |
|
|
What are nodes represented by and what can they acquire? |
Nodes are represented by features, letters, and words. Nodes can acquire different levels of activation. |
|
|
What do the output functions of the nodes do? |
Relate activation levels to outputs |
|
|
What is a learning rule? |
A rule that specifies how to make changes to the excitatory and inhibitory connections between the nodes |
|
|
Why is a learning rule one of the most important features of a neural network model? |
Because it enables the network to improve its performance. |
|
|
What are the six components of the neural network model? |
1. A set of processing units called nodes 2. A pattern of connections among nodes 3. Activation rules for the nodes 4. A state of activation 5. Output functions of the nodes 6. A learning rule |
|
|
What are the three reasons why neural network models are so important? |
1. Many psychologists believe that neural network models more accurately portray how the brain works 2. Adjusting the excitatory and inhibitory weights that linked nodes allows a network to learn and this may capture how people learn 3. The models allow for a different kind of computing in which many week constraints can be simultaneously considered |
